TIMBER

Introduction
• Wood is the most unusual & valuable material of the building
industry.
• Timber is that; wood which is suitable for building or carpentry
& various engineering purposes.
• The word ‘timber’ originates from old English word timbrian
which means to build.
Classification of timber

TIMBER

STANDING ROUGH CONVERTED

(Containing in (Obtained after (Sawn & cut into

Living tree) Felling of tree) Commercial sizes)
Standing Timber Rough Timber Converted Timber

• This indicates • This indicate timber • This indicates

timber contained in which obtained after timber which is
a living tree. felling a tree. cut into suitable
• Standing timber is commercial
just a living tree sizes.
which satisfy the
property of timber.
Classification of trees • Exogenous trees :These trees
increase in bulk by growing outwards
and distinct consecutive rings are
Tree formed in the horizontal section of
such a tree. The timber which is
Exogeneous Endogeneous mostly used for engineering purposes
belongs to this category

Conifers Deciduous The exogenous trees are further

subdivided into two groups:
1. Conifers - These are ever-green
Soft wood Hard wood trees and leaves of these trees do
not fall till new ones are grown
2. Deciduous - these are broad-leaf
trees and leaves of these trees fall
in autumn and new ones appear in
spring season

• Endogenous trees :These trees grow inwards and fibrous mass is

seen in their longitudinal sections. The timber from these trees has
very limited engineering applications
Comparison of soft & hard wood
Item Soft wood Hard wood
Annual ring Distinct Indistinct
Colour Light Dark
Fire resistance Poor More
Medullary rays Indistinct Distinct
Strength Strong for direct Strong for
pull& weak for tension,compressi
shear on,&,shear

Structure Resinious Close grained

Weight Light Heavy
Cross-section of an exogenous tree
 Characteristics of good timber: Qualities of timber
• Appearance – hard and shining depend on:
• Colour – dark
• Defects – free from dead knots , flaws , shakes etc. • Environmental conditions
of the locality.
• Durability – capable of resisting action of chemicals,
physical & mechanical agencies, insects. • Maturity of the tree.
• Elasticity – essential property when used for bows, carriage • Method of seasoning.
shafts, sport goods. • Nature of the soil.
• Fibres - straight fibres. • Process of preservation.
• Fire resistance – bad conductor of heat • Time of felling.
• Hardness - should offer resistance when penetrated by
another body.
• Mechanical wear - should not deteriorate easily due to
abrasion, essential for traffic, wooden floors, pavements.
• Shape – capable of retaining shape during conversion,
seasoning.
• Smell – sweet smell.
• Sound – should give out a clear, ringing sound when struck.
• Strength – capable of taking loads, strong enough for
structural members such as joist , beam , rafter.
• Structure – should be uniform, fibres should be firmly added
 Defects in timber
1. Due to natural forces :
a. Callus – Indicates soft issue or skin which covers the wound of a tree
b. Chemical Stain – Discolouration caused by some external agency via chemical
reaction
c. Coarse Grain – The rapid growth of a tree causes it’s annual rings to widen. It
possesses less strength
d. Knots – These are the bases of branches which are broken or cut off from the
tree
e. Dead Wood – Obtained from dead standing trees. Usually of lightweight and
reddish colour
f. Rind Galls – Peculiar curved swellings found on the body of a tree
g. Shakes – Cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood
h. Twisted Fibres – Caused by twisting of young trees by fast blowing
i. Water Stain – Discolouration due to contact with water
j. Wind Cracks – Shrinkage of exterior surface due to exposure to atmosphere
.
Defects in timber
2. Due to seasoning –
a. Bow : Indicated by curvature formed in the direction of length of timber
b. Case-hardening: The dry exposed surface of timber shrinks & is under
compression
c. Check :Crack which separates fibres of wood; does not extend from one end to
other
d. Collapse: Uneven shrinkage leads to flattening while drying .
e. Cup :Curvature formed in transverse direction of timber.
f. Honey-combing: Many radial & circular cracks develop in interior portion due to
stresses developed while drying.
g. Radial Shakes: These are radial cracks
h. Split: A crack extending from one end to other.
i. Twist: Piece of timber spirally distorted along its length.
j. Warp: A piece of timber which has twisted out of shape.
 Defects in timber

3. Defects due to conversion-

a. Chip Mark: indicated by signs placed by chips on finished surface of timber
b. Diagonal grain: Due to improper sawing there is diagonal mark on straight
grained surface
c. Torn grain: Caused when a small depression is formed on the finished surface
of timber by falling of a tool or so
d. Wane: Denoted by the presence of original rounded surface on manufactured
piece of timber
 Defects in timber
4. Defects due to fungi-
• a. Blue Stain: Wood fungi
• b. Brown Rot: Due to removal of cellulose compound sap is stained bluish
due to from wood it attains brown colour
• c. Dry Rot: Fungi feed on wood reducing it to powder form
• d. Heart Rot: The heart of wood is exposed to atmospheric agents when a
branch comes out of tree.
• e. Sap Strain: Some fungi feed on cell contents of sap wood due to which it
looses its colour
• f. Wet Rot: Some fungi cause chemical decomposition converting timber into
greyish brown powder
• g. White Rot: Some fungi attack lignin of wood converting it into a white
mass of cellulose compounds

5. Defects due to insects-

a. Beetles cause rapid decay of timber, form pin-holes in it
b. Marine Borers make holes or bore tunnels in wood for taking shelter
c. Termites eat the wood from core of cross-section making tunnels in the
timber
Preservation of timber
• Brushing

• Charring

• Dipping and steeping

• Hot & cold open tank treatment

• Injecting under pressure

• Spraying
Seasoning of timber
Definition:
Newly felled tree contains about 50% of its own dry weight as water
in the form of sap & moisture. It is essential to remove this water
before using timber for any purpose. This process of drying of timber
is called seasoning.

Methods of seasoning:
1. Natural seasoning
a. Air seasoning.
2. Artificial seasoning
a. Boiling
b. Chemical seasoning
c. Electrical seasoning
d. Kiln seasoning
e. Water seasoning
 Natural seasoning(air seasoning)
In this method, seasoning is carried out by natural air and hence also referred as air
seasoning.

METHODS OF AIR SEASONING:

• Log of timber is cut and sawn into sections.
• It is either slacked horizontally or vertically.
• The ground is cleared and levelled for good drainage.
• The platform is made slightly higher 300m above the ground level.
• The timber pieces are sorted out according to lengths and thickness and
arranged in layers, one above the other.
• Each layer is separated by spacers of sound dry wood.
• The distance between spacers depends on the sizes of timber members to be
seasoned.
• The length of stack is equal to length of timber pieces.
• The stack is to be protected from fast blowing wind, rain and extreme heat of
the sun.
• Similar stacks are constructed. The minimum distance between adjacent stacks
should be atleast 600m.
 Natural seasoning(air seasoning)
ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL SEASONING:
• Depending upon the climatic conditions, the moisture content of wood can be
brought down to about 10 to 20 per cent.
• It does not require skilled supervision.
• Thicker timber sections are usually seasoned by the process of air seasoning.
• This method of seasoning timber is cheap and simple.
DISADVANTAGES OF AIR SEASONING:
• As the process depends on the natural air, it sometimes becomes difficult to
control it.
• The drying of different surfaces may not be uniform.
• There are chances for end splitting because the end of such timbers dry rapidly
in comparison to the central portions.
• There are chances of attack of fungi and insects.
• The moisture content may not be brought down to a desired level.
• The space required for this process will be more as it is stacked for a long time.
• The process of seasoning takes a long time about 3-4 yrs to make it fit for the
work of carpenter.
 Artificial seasoning: advantages:
• Shrinkage, cracking and warping are minimized.
• The drying is controlled and there are practically no chances
for the attack of fungi and insects.
• The drying of different surfaces is even and uniform.
• Reduces the period of seasoning.
• There is better circulation of air, humidity and temperature.
• The wood becomes more suitable for painting and gluing.
• Desired moisture can be obtained.
A. BOILING
• The timber is immersed in water and water is boiled for 3-4
hrs and the dried slowly in the shed or timber may be exposed
to the action of hot steam.

B. CHEMICAL SEASONING:
• Timber is immersed in the suitable salt and seasoned in
ordinary way.

C. ELECTRICAL SEASONING:
• Use of high frequency alternating currents. Resistance
increases as the wood dries internally which results in the
production of heat. But this method proves costly.
 Kiln seasoning:
• Timber is arranged inside the chamber .
• Air which is saturated with moisture and which is heated to a
temperature of 35-38 is then forced in the chamber.
• Forced air is allowed to circulate round the timber pieces.
• The relative humidity is now gradually reduced.
• The temperature is then raised and maintained till the desired degree
of moisture content is attained.
Stationary kiln Progressive kiln
• Carried out in a single • The carriage with timber travels
apartment. slowly from one end of kiln to the
• Drying operations are adjusted other end and while doing so it get
as drying proceeds. seasoned.
• This kiln is adopted for • The hot air is supplied from the
seasoning timber which requires discharging end .
a close control of humidity and
temperature.
 Water seasoning:
• The timber is cut into pieces of suitable sizes.
• These pieces are immersed wholly in water, preferably in
running water of a stream.
• The thicker end is kept pointing on the upstream side.
• The timber is taken out after 2-4 weeks. During this period sap
is washed by water.
• Then it is allowed to dry under a shed having free circulation
of air.
 Products available in market
• Batten- Timber piece where breadth & thickness does not exceed 50mm

• Baulk- Roughly squared piece obtained by removing bark & sap of wood.

• Board- Piece with parallel sides & thickness less than 50mm & width exceeds 150mm.

• Deal – Piece of softwood with parallel sides, thickness varies from 50mm to 100mm

• End- Short piece of batten, deal, scantling etc.

• Log- Trunk of tree obtained after removal of branches.

• Plank- Timber piece with parallel sides, thickness less than 50mm width exceeds 50mm

• Pole-(spar) Sound long log of wood, diameter does not exceed 200mm

• Quartering- Square piece, length from 50mm to 150mm

• Scantling- Timber piece whose breadth & thickness exceed 50mm but less than 200mm in
length
 Uses of timber
• For door shutters, window & door frames, roofing materials etc.

• For formwork of cement concrete, centering of an arch, scaffolding etc

• Making furniture, agricultural instruments, musical instruments, sport goods

• Railway coach wagons

• Toys, engraving work, matches

• Railway sleepers, packing cases

• Temporary bridges & boat construction