DNA Structure and Functions JNL

DNA Structure and
Functions
Think, Pair, Share
What do you
already know
about DNA?
Where is DNA located?
Where is DNA located?
Chromosomes
Humans have 46
chromosomes.
Chromosomes are
arranged into 23
pairs.
One copy of the
chromosome comes
from your father and
one from your mother.
Inheritance
Egg and sperm cells
are the only cells to
contain 23
chromosomes.
During fertilisation
the egg and sperm
cells join together.
The nuclei fuse.
The chromosomes
pair up and produce
an embryo with 46
chromosomes.
DNA Structure
• Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

• One molecule of DNA, consists of
• 2 strands of repeating units called
nucleotides
• The 2 strands are twisted into a double
helix
DNA: The monomers
• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Made up of lots of nucleotides joined
together.
Phosphate A nitrogenous base
Ribose sugar (RNA)

Deoxyribose sugar (DNA)
DNA: The bases
There are 4 different bases

• Guanine
• Cytosine
• Adenine
• Thymine
Adenine and Guanine are Purine bases.

Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil are Pyrimidine bases.
DNA: The sugar phosphate backbone
DNA is a polymer of mononucleotides.

Mononucleotides join together between the
phosphate of one nucleotide and the
phosphate group of the adjoining nucleotide.
Really strong bond

DNA: A polynucleotide
The sugar and phosphate units
make up the “backbone” of the
nucleic acid.
one nucleotide
A base is attached to each sugar

molecule.
DNA: Base pairing
• The two strands of the double helix are held

together by hydrogen bonds between the bases.
• Hydrogen bonds are singularly very weak but
collectively can be very strong.
DNA: Specific base pairing
In DNA Adenine always pairs with Thymine

(A-T)
In DNA Guanine always pairs with Cytosine (C-

G)
DNA: Complementary base pairing
Adenine pairs with Thymine

A T
Guanine pairs with Cytosine

G C
T A
A and T are complementary base pairs.
C G
C and G are complementary base pairs.
T A
Double helix structure of DNA
3D model of DNA double helix
What is the function of DNA
• Heredity material responsible for passing
genetic information from cell to cell.
How is it adapted to do its job?

• Stable
• 2 strands can separate so it can self-
replicate.
• Large molecule that carries LOTS of
information
• Base pairing prevents corruption from outside
chemicals or physical forces.
DNA: The Watson and Crick Hypothesis
Rosalind Franklin in the early

1950’s showed that
phosphate groups of DNA
must lie on the outside of
the molecule.
•Watson and Crick put

forward the possible
structure of DNA in 1953.
They were awarded a Nobel
prize in 1962.
Questions
1. What elements comprise DNA?
2. What are the monomer units called in DNA?
3. Name the 3 parts of this monomer unit.
4. Which bases form complementary base pairs?
5. What holds the 2 strands of DNA together?
6. If the base sequence on 1 strand of DNA is
GTTACCGTA what would the sequence be on
the other strand?
7. If 19.9% of the base pairs in DNA are
Guanine, what percentage is Thymine?
8. Why is DNA suited to do its job?
Answers
1. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
2. Nucleotides
3. Deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous
base.
4. Adenine bonds to thymine and cytosine bonds
to guanine.
5. Hydrogen bonds.
6. CAATGGCAT
7. 30.8%
8. Stable, can self-replicate, large molecule
RNA
Single stranded
Adenine
Uses ribose sugar
instead of
deoxyribose
Uses uracil instead
of thymine
RNA
Small section of
Adenine
DNA – can fit out of
the nucleus
Less stable
DNA – True or False?
DNA Replication
Learning Intentions
• Describe how DNA replicates.
• Explain why the importance of DNA replication to living
organisms
When does a DNA molecule need
to replicate?
• Before a cell divides DNA is replicated.
• This occurs during the first stage of
Mitosis and Meiosis.
• This is so when a cell divides the two
daughter cells will contain the correct
amount of genetic material.
A T
C G
G C
The original
C G DNA molecule
has unwound…
A T
C G
A T
T A
An enzyme
(DNA helicase)
causes the 2
strands of
DNA to
separate…….
T
A
C
G
free nucleotides in
the nucleoplasm
are attracted to
their
complementary
base pairs.
T
A
C
G
C
The strong
sugar
phosphate
back bone is
re-joined by
DNA
polymerase
…forming 2
identical
strands of
DNA….
…because
the strands
each contain
half of the
original
material…
…it is called
the semi-
conservative
method of
replication.
The two DNA strands will coil up and become
identical chromatids held together by a centromere.
The quantity of genetic material in the cell doubles
but the chromosome number remains the same.
Homologous pair (same
genes in same positions
but one from mum and
one from dad)
Chromatid Centromere
4 Chromosomes 4 Chromosomes
Tasks
Write the statements from the following

slide into the correct order.
Two new DNA molecules are formed by semi-conservative
replication. Each DNA molecule consists of one parent
strand and a new strand.
The DNA molecule unwinds and hydrogen bonds between

the bases are broken causing it to unzip.
DNA polymerase joins the strong chemical bond between

the sugar and the phosphate molecules of adjoining
nucleotides on the new strand of DNA.
An enzyme rewinds the double helix
The free nucleotides pair up with their complementary

base pair on the original strand of DNA
Free nucleotides in the nucleoplasm

1. The DNA molecule unwinds and hydrogen bonds between
the bases are broken causing it to unzip.
2. Free nucleotides in the nucleoplasm
3. The free nucleotides pair up with their complementary

base pair on the original strand of DNA
4. DNA polymerase joins the strong chemical bond between

the sugar and the phosphate molecules of adjoining
nucleotides on the new strand of DNA.
5. Two new DNA molecules are formed by semi-conservative

replication. Each DNA molecule consists of one parent
strand and a new strand.
6. An enzyme rewinds the double helix

Importance
identical OR exactly the same

DNA/molecules/copies produced
ensures daughter/new cells have
complete/correct/all/the same genetic
information/genes/chromosomes
Max 1 Mark
Protein synthesis, stage 1:
Transcription
Learning Intentions
• Describe the process of Transcription
What is the function of DNA?
The function of
DNA is to code for
proteins.
Not all of the DNA
molecule codes for
proteins.
The functional
part of DNA that
can is known as a
Gene
RNA
Genes are instructions to build a

protein.
Unfortunately the DNA that contains
the genes can’t leave the nucleus.
So a copy of the gene must be made.
This copy is known as Messenger RNA
or mRNA.
RNA is another type of nucleic acid
Transcription
Transcription is the name of the

process in which a copy of DNA is made.
The copy is known as messenger RNA
(mRNA)
This process occurs in the nucleus of
the cell
The DNA in the nucleus is first unwound….
ATTTTATCGCCCTGCTAGCTGGGCAT
TAAAATAGCGGGACGATCGACCCGTA
The weak hydrogen bonds between the bases are broken…..
The weak hydrogen bonds between the bases are broken…..
This causes the two strands of DNA to separate.
Free RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm find their
complementary base pair on the DNA…….
U
However, where there is an adenine on DNA, a uracil will

be added to the mRNA instead of thymine
UA
U AA
A hydrogen bond forms between the RNA nuclotide base
and the complementary base on the DNA.
U AAA
U A AAA
U A AAA U
U A AAA U A
U A AAA U AG
U A AAA U AG C
U A AAA U AG C G
U A AAA U AG C G G
U A AAA U AG C G G G
U A AAA U AG C G G GA
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G A
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G A C
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G A C C
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G A C C C
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G A C C C G
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G A C C C G U
U A AAA U AG C G G GA C G A U C G A C C C G U A
The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

formation of the strong chemical bond between the
ribose sugar and phosphate groups of adjoining RNA
nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.

nucleotides.
The messenger RNA molecule is formed

UAAAAUAGCGGGACGAUCGACCCGUA
The messenger RNA molecule is formed

UAAAAUAGCGGGACGAUCGACCCG
Hydrogen bonds between the bases on mRNA and the

bases on DNA break….
UAAAAUAGCGGGACGAUCGACC

UAAAAUAGCGGGACGAUCG

UAAAAUAGCGGGACG
…….The mRNA is ready to make it’s journey out of the

nucleus and into the cytoplasm.
UAAAAUAGCGGG

UAAAAUAG

UAAAA

UAA

U

The hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases

on DNA re-form and the DNA is wound back into a helix
again.

again.

again.

again.

again.
Regulation
Only 1.5% of the DNA codes for protein –

the rest regulates them.
 Switches them on and off.
You can have a length of DNA called an
operon.
 Promoter to increase transcription.
 Regulatory gene makes a repressor protein
that can bind and prevent transcription.
Regulation
Repressor
protein
Protein Synthesis, stage 2:
Translation
Learning Intentions
Describe how mRNA gets
translated into a protein.
Starter: 12 Quick Questions
What are the repeating units in
DNA known as?
Nucleotides
What are the three parts that
make up a nucleotide?
Deoxyribose sugar
Phosphate
Base
Which bases form complementary
base pairs
A–T
C-G
What type of bond forms
between the complementary
bases on DNA
Hydrogen bond
What type of bond forms
between the sugar and phosphate
molecules of adjoining
nucleotides?
A strong chemical
bond
What is the name of the enzyme
that forms this bond during DNA
replication?
DNA Polymerase
What is the DNA structure
described as?
A double helix
In RNA the base Uracil replaces
which base found in DNA
Thymine
Which sugar is found in an RNA
nucleotide
Ribose
What molecule is formed in
transcription?
Messenger RNA
(mRNA)
Which enzyme catalyses the
formation of strong chemical
bonds between RNA nucleotides?
RNA polymerase
Where does transcription occur?
Nucleus
Translation
Translation is the process in which the
mRNA is ‘read’ and translated into a
protein.
Translation occurs on the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm
The process involves another type of
RNA molecule known as Transfer RNA
or tRNA
tRNA
The mRNA leaves the
nucleus through a nuclear
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
UGCAUCGCAACUCGC
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
GAUGCAUCGCAACUCGC
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
UCGAUGCAUCGCAACUCGC
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
UUUCGAUGCAUCGCAACUCGC
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
UUUCGAUGCAUCGCAACU
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
UUUCGAUGCAUCGCA
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
UUUCGAUGCAU
The mRNA leaves the
pore and enters the
cytoplasm
UUUCGA
A ribosome becomes
attached to the mRNA
A ribosome becomes
A ribosome becomes
A ribosome becomes
codon
the genetic code on the

mRNA is read in groups
of 3 letters called
codons
codon codon codon codon codon codon codon
the genetic code on the

mRNA is read in groups
of 3 letters called
codons
AAA
tRNA
aa1
AAA
tRNA molecules
have specific
tRNA anticodons for
each of the 20
amino acids
aa1
AAA
tRNA
aa1
AAA
tRNA
aa1
AAA
tRNA
aa1
AAA
the complementary
tRNA
anticodon is attracted to
the first codon on the
mRNA and forms a weak
aa1
hydrogen bond.
AAA
GCU
tRNA
tRNA
aa1
aa2
AAA
GCU
tRNA
tRNA
aa1
aa2
AAA
GCU
tRNA
tRNA
aa1
aa2
AAA
GCU
tRNA
tRNA
aa1
aa2
AAAGCU
tRNA tRNA
the second codon on
mRNA also attracts its
complementary anticodon
on tRNA
aa1 aa2
AAAGCU
tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2
a peptide bond is formed between the

adjacent amino acids
AAAGCU
tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2
a peptide bond is formed between the

adjacent amino acids
AAAGCU
The first tRNA molecule

tRNA tRNA
become detached from it’s
amino acid
ACG
aa1 aa2
tRNA
AAAGCU
NA tRNA
ACG
tRNA
aa1 aa2
AAAGCU
The ribosome moves along
the mRNA molecule
tRNA ACG
tRNA
aa1 aa2
aa3
AAAGCU
ACG The ribosome moves along
the mRNA molecule
tRNA
tRNA
aa1 aa2
aa3
AAAGCU ACG
The third tRNA moves in
place the anticodon linking
with it’s complementary
tRNA tRNA
codon.
aa1 aa2 aa3

AAAGCU ACG
tRNA tRNA
A peptide bond forms
between the two amino
acids
aa1 aa2 aa3

AAAGCU ACG
tRNA tRNA
UAG
aa1 aa2 aa3 tRNA

AAAGCU ACG
tRNA
UAG
tRNA
tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3
aa4
AAAGCU ACG
UAG
tRNA
tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3
aa4
A A A G C U A C GU A G
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4

AAAGCU ACG UAG
tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4

tRNA tRNA
CGU
tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4
aa
CGU
tRNA tRNA
tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4
aa5
A A A G C U A C GU A G C G U
tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5

tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5

tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5

tRNA tRNA
UGA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5 tRNA

tRNA
UGA
tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5
aa6
UGA
tRNA
tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5

aa6
A A A G C U A C GU A G C G U U G A
tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5 aa6

tRNA tRNA

tRNA

tRNA

tRNA

tRNA

GCG
tRNA
A stop codon is reached

tRNA
A stop codon is reached


A polypeptide chain has been formed and is

released into the cytoplasm

AAA GCU
tRNA tRNA
aa1 aa2
AAA GCU
tRNA tRNA
several ribosomes may
pass along the mRNA
behind the first - each
producing an identical
polypeptide
aa1 aa2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kmrUz
DYAmEI
Connecting proteins and genes
Consider the following two statements…
Cells have different

Genes carry the
characteristics because
instructions for
they make different
inherited characteristics.
types of proteins.
What is the connection between genes and proteins?
Genes contain the instructions

for making proteins.
What molecule has the instructions for making proteins?

The Genetic code
The sequence of bases on DNA is a ‘codeword’
The four bases are ‘read’ in triplets.
The combination of four letters in groups of 3
gives 64 base triplets.
These 64 triplets code for the 20 amino
acids.
There is therefore more that one triplet that
will code for each amino acid.
Combinations of these 20 amino acids give
rise to the huge variety of proteins found.
How do genes make proteins?
triplet amino acid

The order of triplets in a gene determines the sequence

of amino acids.
The amino acids join together to form a protein molecule.
Each gene contains the sequence of bases for one protein.

Why is the sequence of bases in DNA called the genetic code?
The genetic code is the order of DNA bases which

determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein.
How many triplets code for a protein of 20 amino acids?

1 amino acid = 1 triplet
20 amino acids = 20 triplets
How many bases code for a protein of 20 amino acids?
Build your own protein molecule
Mutations
Random change in the DNA of a cell

Either in genes or whole chromosomes
Can often happen if mistakes are made
when the DNA replicates
Changes the codons – changes the
protein made.
DNA mutations and proteins
mutation
Mutations can be caused by mistakes in copying DNA

or the effects of radiation and heavy metal ions.
Will the mutated version of DNA make the same protein?
DNA mutations and proteins
If genes produce incorrect proteins, cells may not function

properly. This is the cause of many inherited diseases.
Types of mutation
Duplication – insert a nucleotide twice

Deletion – Miss out a nucleotide
Addition – A nucleotide is added
Both of these change the frame of the

mRNA produced – this is called a
frameshift.
Frameshift
Normal
Duplication
UUUCGAUGGCAUCGCAACUCGC
Deletion
UUUCGAUCAUCGCAACUCGC
Addition
UUUCGAUGACAUCGCAACUCGC
Non-frameshift mutations
Substitution – one nucleotide is swapped for
another.
 Codons stay the same.
 One amino acid is different
 This could have a big effect
 More commonly has no effect as this could code for
the same amino acid  silent mutation.
Inversion – a few bases are reversed.
 Similar effect to substitution.
 More likely get a different amino acid and this can
impact on the protein.
Effects of mutations
Some mutations only occur one particular cell
e.g. heart, intestines, skin.
If they are bad, the cell will die. If not, the cell
survives.
 The mutation is lost when the cell dies.
 This is no problem, we have lots of cells.
If the cell divides then the mutation continues in
the daughter cells.
Sometimes mutations can be an advantage –
e.g. resistant to an insecticide.
 This drives natural selection – remember variation in
a population due to random mutation!

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DNA Structure and

• Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

Phosphate A nitrogenous base

Ribose sugar (RNA)

There are 4 different bases

Adenine and Guanine are Purine bases.

DNA is a polymer of mononucleotides.

Really strong bond

A base is attached to each sugar

• The two strands of the double helix are held

In DNA Adenine always pairs with Thymine

In DNA Guanine always pairs with Cytosine (C-

Adenine pairs with Thymine

Guanine pairs with Cytosine

How is it adapted to do its job?

Rosalind Franklin in the early

•Watson and Crick put

Write the statements from the following

The DNA molecule unwinds and hydrogen bonds between

DNA polymerase joins the strong chemical bond between

An enzyme rewinds the double helix

The free nucleotides pair up with their complementary

Free nucleotides in the nucleoplasm

2. Free nucleotides in the nucleoplasm

3. The free nucleotides pair up with their complementary

4. DNA polymerase joins the strong chemical bond between

5. Two new DNA molecules are formed by semi-conservative

6. An enzyme rewinds the double helix

identical OR exactly the same

Genes are instructions to build a

Transcription is the name of the

However, where there is an adenine on DNA, a uracil will

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The enzyme RNA polymerase then catalyses the

The messenger RNA molecule is formed

The messenger RNA molecule is formed

Hydrogen bonds between the bases on mRNA and the

Hydrogen bonds between the bases on mRNA and the

Hydrogen bonds between the bases on mRNA and the

…….The mRNA is ready to make it’s journey out of the

…….The mRNA is ready to make it’s journey out of the

…….The mRNA is ready to make it’s journey out of the

…….The mRNA is ready to make it’s journey out of the

…….The mRNA is ready to make it’s journey out of the

…….The mRNA is ready to make it’s journey out of the

The hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases

The hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases