T Pengukuran Terbang

Hendrix NF
 Introduction
• Accurate measurements of speed and altitude
are important.
• the instruments that used for measuring the
aircraft speed and altitude are the altimeter
(altitude) and the airspeed indicator (true
airspeed indicator, the machmeter and the
vertical speed indicator).
• The altimeter and airspeed indicators are
actuated by air pressures.
• The pressures that actuate the instruments are
Static Pressure (Ps) and Total Pressure (Pt)
• Where their relation can be found at equation
below
Pt = Ps + qc
where qc is the dynamic pressure (0,5*rho*V2)
which developed by forward speed of aircraft. This
pressure is for the airspeed indicator.
• The static pressure (Ps ) is the atmospheric
pressure at the flight level of the aircraft. This
pressure is used for the altimeter and the vertical
speed indicator.
 Pitot static system
(pitot tube system)
• The pitot-static system is a combined system
that utilizes the static air pressure, and the
dynamic pressure due to the motion of the
aircraft through the air.
• The pitot tube has a small opening at the front
which allows the total pressure to enter the
pressure chamber. The total pressure is made
up of dynamic pressure plus static pressure.
• The total pressure is transmitted to the ASI
from the pitot tube’s pressure chamber via a
small tube.
• When the dynamic pressure changes, the ASI
shows either increase or decrease,
corresponding to the direction of change.
• The two remaining instruments (altimeter
and VSI) utilize only the static pressure which
is derived from the static port.
• The static chamber is vented through small
holes to the free undisturbed air on the
side(s) of the aircraft.
• An alternate static source is provided in some
aircraft to provide static pressure should the
primary static source become blocked.
• When the alternate static source pressure is
used, the following instrument indications are
observed:
1. The altimeter indicates a slightly higher altitude
than actual.
2. The ASI indicates an airspeed greater than the
actual airspeed.
3. The VSI shows a momentary climb and then
stabilizes if the altitude is held constant.
• The static ports are located in a position where
the air at their surface is as undisturbed as
possible.
• Errors in the ASI and VSI almost always indicate a
blockage of the pitot tube, the static port(s), or
both.
• Moisture(including ice), dirt, or even insects can
cause a blockage the systems.
• During preflight, it is very important to make sure
the pitot tube cover is removed and that static
port openings are checked for blockage and
damage.
 ALTIMETER
• The altimeter measures the height of the airplane
above a given pressure level.
• The altimeter is the only instrument that is
capable of indicating altitude
• Atmospheric pressure and temperature affect the
altimeter
• A stack of sealed aneroid wafers comprises the
main component of the altimeter.
• These wafers expand and contract with changes
• in atmospheric pressure from the static source.
Altimeter. An aneroid wafer is a sealed wafer that
is evacuated to an internal pressure of
29.92 inches of mercury (29.92 "Hg).
These wafers are free to expand and
contract with changes to the static
pressure.
A higher static pressure presses down
on the wafers and causes them to
collapse.
A lower static pressure (less than 29.92
"Hg) allows the wafers to expand.
A mechanical linkage connects the
wafer movement to the needles on the
indicator face, which translates
compression of the wafers into a
decrease in altitude and translates an
expansion of the wafers into an increase
in altitude.
• As altitude increases
decreases.
• Movement of the anero
through gears to the t
altitude.
• The shortest hand ind
thousands of feet; th
thousands of feet; an
hundreds of feet.
 Altimeter Errors
• A sensitive altimeter is designed to indicate
standard changes from standard conditions,
but most flying involves errors caused by
nonstandard conditions and the pilot must be
able to modify the indications to correct for
these errors.
• There are two types of errors: mechanical and
inherent
• Mechanical Altimeter Errors
The altimeter should indicate the surveyed
elevation of the airport.
If the indication is off by more than 75 feet from
the surveyed elevation, the instrument should
be referred to a certificated instrument repair
station for recalibration.
Differences between ambient temperature
and/or pressure causes an erroneous
indication on the altimeter
• Inherent Altimeter Error
(EFFECT OF NONSTANDARD
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE)
if flying from a high-pressure area to a low-
pressure area without adjusting the altimeter,
the actual altitude of the airplane would be
LOWER than the indicated altitude.
When flying from a low-pressure area to a high-
pressure area without adjusting the altimeter,
the actual altitude of the airplane is HIGHER
than the indicated altitude.
Effects of nonstandard temperature on an altimeter.
• TYPES OF ALTITUDE
• Indicated Altitude—That altitude read directly
from the altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set
to the current altimeter setting.
• True Altitude—The vertical distance of the
airplane above sea level—the actual altitude.
It is often expressed as feet above mean sea
level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and obstacle
elevations on aeronautical charts are true
altitudes.
• Absolute Altitude—The vertical distance of an
airplane above the terrain, or above ground
level (AGL).
• Pressure Altitude—The altitude indicated
when the altimeter setting window
(barometric scale) is adjusted to 29.92.
• Density Altitude—This altitude is pressure
altitude corrected for variations from standard
temperature. When conditions are standard,
pressure altitude and density altitude are the
same.
 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
• The vertical speed indicator (VSI), which is
sometimes called a vertical velocity indicator
(VVI), indicates whether the airplane is
climbing, descending, or in level flight.
• The rate of climb or descent is indicated in
feet per minute.
• If properly calibrated, the VSI indicates zero in
level flight.
 vertical speed indicator operates solely from
static pressure. It contains a diaphragm with
connecting linkage and gearing to the indicator
pointer inside an airtight case.
The inside of the diaphragm is connected
directly to the static line of the pitot-static
system.
The area outside the diaphragm, which is
inside the instrument case, is also connected
to the static line, but through a restricted
orifice (calibrated leak).

Both the diaphragm and the case receive air from the static line at existing atmospheric
pressure. When the airplane is on the ground or in level flight, the pressures inside the
diaphragm and the instrument case remain the same and the pointer is at the zero
indication.
When the airplane climbs or descends, the pressure inside the diaphragm changes
immediately, but due to the metering action of the restricted passage, the case pressure
remains higher or lower for a short time, causing the diaphragm to contract or expand.
This causes a pressure differential that is indicated on the instrument needle as a climb or
descent.
When the pressure differential stabilizes at a definite ratio, the needle indicates the rate
of altitude change.
 AIRSPEED INDICATOR

• An ASI is a differential pressure gauge that

measures the dynamic pressure of the air
through which the aircraft is flying.
• Dynamic pressure is the difference in the
ambient static air pressure and the total, or
ram, pressure caused by the motion of the
aircraft through the air.
• Types of Airspeed
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS) is shown on the dial
of the instrument, uncorrected for instrument
or system errors.
• Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) is the speed at
which the aircraft is moving through the air,
which is found by correcting IAS for
instrument and position errors.
• Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) is CAS corrected for
compression of the air inside the pitot tube.
EAS is the same as CAS in standard
atmosphere at sea level.
• True Airspeed (TAS) is CAS corrected for
nonstandard pressure and temperature. TAS
and CAS are the same in standard atmosphere
at sea level
• Mach number is the ratio of the TAS of the
aircraft to the speed of sound in the same
atmospheric conditions.
• Groundspeed (GS)—The actual speed of the
airplane over the ground. It is true airspeed
adjusted for wind. Groundspeed decreases
with a headwind, and increases with a
tailwind.
• OTHER AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS
• Instrument Check
• Prior to takeoff, the airspeed indicator should
read zero. However, if there is a strong wind
blowing directly into the pitot tube, the
airspeed indicator may read higher than zero.
• When beginning the takeoff, make sure the
airspeed is increasing at an appropriate rate
References