McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter Topics
 Taxes and international business decisions.
 Differences in national corporate tax and withholding tax
regimes.
 Overlapping tax jurisdictions and double taxation.
 Foreign tax credits.
 Controlled foreign corporations, Subpart F income, and foreign
tax credit baskets.
 Tax treaties.
 Foreign currency translation for tax purposes.
 Tax incentives.

11-2
Learning Objectives
1. Describe differences in corporate income tax and withholding tax
regimes across countries.
2. Explain how overlapping tax jurisdictions cause double taxation.
3. Show how foreign tax credits reduce the incidence of double taxation.
4. Demonstrate how rules related to controlled foreign corporations,
subpart F income, and foreign tax credit baskets affect U.S. taxation of
foreign source income.
5. Describe some of the benefits provided by tax treaties.
6. Explain and demonstrate procedures for translating foreign currency
amounts for tax purposes.
7. Describe the tax incentives provided by countries to attract FDI and
stimulate exports.

11-3
 The location of international investments is affected by
relative tax rates in the alternative countries.

 The decision about the legal form of the foreign operation,

branch or a corporation, is dependent on differential tax
treatments.

 Method of financing, debt or equity, is affected by the rules

governing taxation of interest and dividends in the host
country.

11-4
 Types of Taxes
 Corporate income taxes are direct taxes on business income.
 These are imposed by most governments.
 The tax rates vary from zero percent in tax havens to over
forty percent.
 Another type of taxes are withholding taxes.
 Withholding taxes are taxes on dividends and some other
amounts paid to foreign citizens.

Learning Objective 1
11-5
 Corporate income tax rates

 Significant variation in tax rates worldwide provides a distinct

tax planning opportunity.
 Some countries tax at different rates based on the type of
activity or nationality of the company owners.
 In addition to variation in tax rates, there is also variation in
how taxable income is computed.
 Expenses that are deductible in one country are not
deductible in others.

Learning Objective 1
11-6
 Corporate income tax rates
 Since the mid 1980s, there has been a worldwide trend
toward reduced tax rates.
 The U.S. started this trend with many other countries
following suit in order to be competitive in attracting foreign
investments.
 Tax haven countries take this trend to the extreme with
some of these jurisdictions having zero percent tax rates.
 The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) has established guidelines to mitigate
the negative impact of tax havens.

Learning Objective 1
11-7
 Withholding taxes
 These taxes typically apply to three types of payments:
dividends, interest, and royalties.
 Similar to corporate income taxes, withholding taxes vary
across countries and by type of payment and recipient.
 Variation in withholding rates impact on tax planning.
 For example, a higher tax rate on dividends than interest
payments would encourage relatively more debt financing
and less equity financing.
 Heavy debt financing is referred to as thin capitalization.

Learning Objective 1
11-8
 Value-added tax
 A substitute for sales taxes.

 These taxes are added into the price of the product or service
at each stage.

 The U.S. does not have value-added tax, but it is common in

the EU.

 It is also used in Australia, Canada, China, Hungary, Mexico,

Nigeria, Turkey, and South Africa.

Learning Objective 1
11-9
 Double taxation
 When two countries tax the same income, this is referred to
as double taxation.

 This occurs when one country taxes the income earned by a

foreign company in that country, and the same company’s
home government taxes its foreign source income.

 Overlapping jurisdictions give rise to double taxation, and can

even result in triple taxation.

Learning Objective 2
11-10
 Taxation approaches
 Worldwide (nationality) approach – all income of a resident
or company of a country is taxed by that country, regardless
of where it is earned.

 Territorial approach – only income earned in that country is

taxed.

 The worldwide approach is much more common.

Learning Objective 2
11-11
 Basis for taxation
 The three most common bases for taxation are source, citizenship,
and residence.

 Almost all countries tax income earned within their borders--that is,
at its source.

 The citizenship basis taxes income of the country’s citizens

regardless of source or where they reside.

 The residence basis taxes income of the country’s residents

regardless of source or citizenship.

Learning Objective 2
11-12
 Basis for taxation – The U.S. approach
 The U.S. taxes on the basis of source, citizenship, and residence.

 Residence is defined by being a permanent resident (green card

test).

 In combination with the worldwide approach, this means that a

U.S. permanent resident that does not live in the U.S. is taxed on
their foreign source income.

 Residence is also defined by residing in the U.S. for at least 183

days in a year (physical presence test).

Learning Objective 2
11-13
 Background – Causes of double taxation
 Double taxation usually arises when a company is taxed on
income earned in a foreign country and taxed on that same
income by its country of residence.

 To alleviate double taxation in these cases, the country of

residence generally defers to the country where the income
was earned.

 In other words, source takes precedence over residence.

Learning Objective 3
11-14
 Background – Solutions to double taxation
 One solution is for a country to adopt the territorial
approach, exempting foreign source income from taxation.

 Another solution is for a country to allow domestic

companies to deduct taxes paid to foreign governments.

 A third solution is for a country to provide a tax credit to

domestic companies for taxes paid to foreign governments.

 Most countries, including the U.S., use the deduction and

credit approaches.

Learning Objective 3
11-15
 FTC – The U.S. approach
 The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) allows companies one of
two options.

 One is to deduct all foreign taxes paid.

 The other is to receive a tax credit for all foreign income

taxes paid.

 Given that the majority of such taxes are income taxes,

companies tend to take the tax credit.

Learning Objective 3
11-16
 FTC – Example
 Assume that GCO is a U.S. company which has a branch in
Mexico where the corporate income tax rate is 33%.
 The U.S. corporate income tax rate is 35%.
 GCO has foreign source income in Mexico of $50,000.
 GCO pays $16,500 of corporate income tax in Mexico and
$20,000 of other taxes.
 GCO decides to do a calculation to choose between using
taxes paid in Mexico as a deduction or tax credit.

Learning Objective 3
11-17
 FTC – Example

Deduction Credit
Foreign source income $50,000 $50,000
Deduction for all taxes paid $36,500 $ 0
U.S. taxable income $13,500 $50,000
U.S. income before tax credit $ 4,725 $17,500
Foreign tax credit $ 0 $16,500
Net U.S. tax liability $ 4,725 $ 1,000

Learning Objective 3
11-18
 FTC – Other
 The U.S. will not allow the credit to exceed the FTC limitation.

 This limitation cannot exceed either actual taxes paid to a

foreign government.

OR the taxes that would have been paid if the income was
earned in the U.S.

 Excess FTC can be carried back one year or carried forward

ten years.

Learning Objective 3
11-19
 FTC baskets
 The Tax Reform Act of 1986 created nine FTC baskets.
 These baskets were defined by different types of foreign
income.
 FTC was calculated separately for each of the nine baskets.
 FTC from different baskets could not be netted against one
another.
 The American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 reduced the number
of baskets to two, which reduced the likelihood that excess
FTC’s would go unused:
 General income
 Passive income

Learning Objective 3
11-20
 FTC baskets under TRA 86
 Passive income.
 High withholding tax interest.
 Financial services income.
 Shipping and aircraft income.
 Dividends of domestic international sales corporations
(DISCs).
 Foreign trade income of a foreign sales corporation (FSC).
 Dividends from an FSC.
 Foreign oil and extraction income.
 All other income.

Learning Objective 3
11-21
 Indirect FTC (for subsidiaries)
 The U.S. allows an indirect FTC on foreign taxes paid by a foreign
subsidiary of a U.S. parent.

 This FTC is not allowed until the income of the subsidiary is taxed in
the U.S.

 The amount of income of a foreign subsidiary that is taxable in the

U.S. is the before tax or “grossed-up” dividend.

 To qualify, the U.S. parent must own at least 10 percent of the

voting stock of the foreign subsidiary.

Learning Objective 3
11-22
 Controlled foreign corporation (CFC)
 A foreign corporation where U.S. shareholders own more than
50 percent of the combined voting power or fair value of the
stock.
 A U.S. shareholder is a U.S. taxpayer that owns at least 10
percent of the stock.
 Much CFC income is referred to as Subpart F income.
 Unlike the deferral of tax on foreign subsidiaries until receipt of
a dividend, Subpart F income is taxable currently.
 There is a safe harbor for such income in jurisdictions with tax
rate > 90% of the U.S. rate.

Learning Objective 4
11-23
 Summary of foreign source income taxation
 What is the legal form of the foreign operation?

 Is the operation a CFC?

 Is the operation located in a tax haven?

 Does the income qualify as Subpart F income?

 The answers to each of these questions affects the determination

of how foreign source income is taxed.

Learning Objective 4
11-24
  Tax treaties – bilateral agreements regarding how individuals
from one country are taxed on income earned in the other
country.

 Their purpose is to alleviate double taxation problems.

 Reducing double taxation helps facilitate international trade

and investment.

 Tax treaties also involve information sharing between

governments that helps in domestic enforcement.

Learning Objective 5
11-25
 Model treaties
 The OECD model treaty is the basis for most bilateral treaties of
developed countries.

 A key part of the OECD model is that host countries only tax
business profits of foreign companies associated with permanent
establishments.

 Recommending withholding tax rates is another key part of the

OECD model.

 The United Nations model treaty is designed to serve as a basis for

treaties between developed and developing nations.

Learning Objective 5
11-26
 U.S. tax treaties
 The U.S. also has a model tax treaty that serves as a starting point
when negotiating tax treaties.

 This model has zero percent withholding tax for interest and
royalties and 15 percent for dividend payments.

 The U.S. has treaties with over 50 countries.

 One notable exception is Brazil, primarily due to lack of Brazilian

investment in the U.S.

 Treaty shopping is a tax reduction tactic, related to treaties, that

some countries are trying to stop.

Learning Objective 5
11-27
 Translation of foreign branch income
 Net income is translated into U.S. dollars at the average exchange
rate for the year. Net income is income after foreign taxes paid.

 Taxes paid to the foreign government, translated at the exchange

rate on the payment date, are then added.

 This second step is referred to as “grossing up.”

 When earnings are repatriated to the U.S. and converted to U.S.

dollars, the difference between this amount and the translated net
income is a taxable foreign exchange gain or loss.

Learning Objective 6
11-28
 Translation of foreign subsidiary income
 Dividends paid to the U.S. parent are translated at the spot
rate on the date of payment.

 Taxes deemed paid on the dividend, translated at the spot

rate on the date of payment, are then added, or “grossed
up.”

 The translated amount of taxes deemed paid is used to

determine the foreign tax credit.

Learning Objective 6
11-29
 Tax holidays
 The term tax holiday refers to an incentive used by a
government that partially or completely exempts a taxpayer
for a period of time.

 Many Asian countries offer tax holidays to foreign

companies.

 The primary reason for offering tax holidays is to encourage

foreign direct investment.

 MNEs can enjoy significant tax reductions provided that

profits are not repatriated.
Learning Objective 7
11-30
 U.S. export incentives
 CFC and Subpart F income provisions prevent some tax
avoidance strategies previously used by exporters.
 Domestic international sales corporation (DISC) was a short-
lived export incentive program for U.S. companies.
 Foreign sales corporation (FSC) was another short-lived export
incentive program for U.S. companies.
 Both of these programs were eventually repealed due to
foreign opposition.
 The Extraterritorial Income Exclusion Act (ETI) essentially
replaced the FSC.

Learning Objective 7
11-31
 American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 (AJCA)
 The AJCA was an attempt to spur job growth in the U.S.
manufacturing sector, broadly defined.

 The program provides a deduction that effectively reduces income

tax rates for domestic manufacturers.

 The deduction is available even to companies that don’t export.

 In addition, the AJCA contains a provision that allows for significant

tax breaks on repatriations of foreign source income.

Learning Objective 7
11-32