LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Describe various process variables

2. Employ an appropriate number of significant figures in
your calculations
3. Convert from mass to moles and vice versa
4. Validate your answer to a problem
5. Choose an appropriate basis to solve a problem
6. Effectively employ the various units associated with
density, concentration, temperature,
and pressure
7. Calculate the average molecular weight of a mixture
 Process Variables
• 1. Moles
A gram-mole of a chemical compound or mole is defined as
the amount (number of molecules) of that compound
whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular
weight
• Types of Moles:
1. gram-mole (gmol): the amount of a species such that its
mass in grams numerically equals its molecular weight (this
amount is associated with Avogadro’s number of molecules)
2. kilogram-mole (kgmol): the amount of a species
such that its mass in kilograms numerically
equals its molecular weight
3. pound-mole (lbmol): the amount of a species
such that its mass in pounds-mass numerically equals
its molecular weight
 Molecular Weight
• The molecular weight of a molecule is the sum of
the masses of all the atoms that make up that
molecule.
• Combined and Defined Units
combined units- are many units, derived as
combinations of the base units

• Use of Molecular Weights to Convert Mass to

Moles
• A compound is composed of more than one
atom, and the molecular weight of the
compound is nothing more than the sum of
the weights of atoms of which it is composed.
• average molecular weights can be
approximated only and cannot be exactly
determined.
• Example: Calculate the average molecular
weight of air, assuming that air is 21% O2 and
79% N2.
Solution:

Therefore, the total mass of 1 g mol of air is equal to 29.0 g, which is called the
average molecular weight of air. (Because we chose 1 g mol of air as the basis,
the total mass calculated directly provides the average molecular weight of
29.0.)
• Mole fraction is simply the number of moles of
a particular substance in a mixture or solution
divided by the total number of moles present
in the mixture or solution.
• This definition holds for gases, liquids, and
solids.
• Unless otherwise specified, when a percentage
or fraction is given for a gas, it is assumed that it
refers to a mole percentage or a mole fraction.
• When a percentage or fraction is given for a
liquid or a solid, it is assumed that it refers to a
weight percentage or a weight fraction
• Choosing a Basis
• A basis is a reference chosen by you for the
calculations you plan to make in a particular
problem, a proper choice of basis often can make
a problem much easier to solve than a poor
choice
 Dimensional Consistency
• A basic principle exists that equations must
be dimensionally consistent. What the
principle means is that each term in an
equation must have the same net dimensions
and units as every other term to which it is
added or subtracted or equated.
• Consequently, dimensional considerations can
be used to help identify the dimensions and
units of terms or quantities in an equation.
 Density and Specific Gravity
• Density (we use the Greek symbol ρ) is the ratio
of mass per unit volume such as kg/m3 or lb/ft3

• Density has both a numerical value and units.

Densities for liquids and solids do not change
significantly at ordinary conditions with pressure,
but they can change significantly with
temperature for certain compounds if the
temperature change is large enough
 Density and Specific Gravity
• Specific volume (we use the symbol ) is the
inverse of density, such as cm3/g or ft3/lb:

• Because density is the ratio of mass to volume, it

can be used to calculate the mass given the
volume or the volume knowing the mass.
• Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of a reference material.
• In symbols for compound A:

• The reference substance for liquids and solids

normally is water
• Thus, the specific gravity is the ratio of the
density of the substance of interest to the
density of water, namely, 1.000 g/cm3, 1000
kg/m3, or 62.43 lb/ft3 at 4°C.
 EXAMPLE
• Calculation of Density Given the Specific Gravity
If penicillin has a specific gravity of 1.41, what
is the density in
(a) g/cm3,
(b) lbm/ft3, and
(c)kg/m3?
• Solution: we assume that the penicillin is at room
temperature (22°C) and that the reference
material is water at 4°C. Therefore, the reference
density is 62.4 lb/ft3 or 1.00 × 103 kg/m3 (1.00
g/cm3).
• A.

• B.

• C.
 Concentration
• Concentration designates the amount of a
component (solute) in a mixture divided by the
total of the mixture.
• EXAMPLES: Mass per unit volume such as lbm of
solute/ft3 of solution, g of solute/L, lbm of
solute/bbl, kg of solute/m3.
• Moles per unit volume such as lb mol of
solute/ft3 of solution, g mol of solute/L, g mol of
solute/cm3
• Mass (weight) fraction—the ratio of the mass of
a component to the total mass of the mixture, a
fraction (or a percent).
• Mole fraction—the ratio of the moles of a
component to the total moles of the mixture, a
fraction (or a percent).
• Parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion
(ppb)—a method of expressing the
concentration of extremely dilute solutions;
ppm is equivalent to a mass (weight) ratio for
solids and liquids. It is a mole ratio for gases.
• Parts per million by volume (ppmv) and parts
per billion by volume (ppbv)—the ratio of the
volume of the solute per volume of the mixture
(usually used only for gases).
 Temperature
• four classes of temperature measures
• two based on a relative scale:
degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
degrees Celsius (°C)
• two based on an absolute scale,
degrees Rankine (°R) and
degrees kelvin (K).
• specified reference temperature (32°F or 0°C) that
occurs in an ice-water mixture (the freezing point
of water).
• Δ°F represent the unit temperature difference on
the Fahrenheit scale and
• Δ°R be the unit temperature difference on the
Rankine scale, and Δ°C and Δ K be the analogous
units in the other two scales, you probably are
aware that
Δ°F = Δ°R
Δ°C = Δ K
• Also, because of the temperature difference
between boiling water and ice (Celsius: 100°C – 0°C
= 100°C; Fahrenheit: 212°F – 32°F = 180°F), the
following relationships hold:
• Δ°C = 1.8000 Δ°F and Δ K = 1.8000 Δ°F
• If you keep in mind that the unit degree Δ°C = Δ K is
larger than the unit degree Δ°F = Δ°R,
 Pressure and Hydrostatic Head
• Pressure is defined as “the normal
(perpendicular) force per unit area.” In the SI
system the force is expressed in newtons and the
area in square meters; then the pressure is N/m2
or pascal (Pa).
• (The value of a pascal is so small that the
kilopascal (kPa) is a more convenient unit of
pressure.) In the AE system the force is the
pounds force and the area used is square inches.
• Pressure, like temperature, can be expressed in
either absolute (psia) or relative scales. Rather
than using the word relative, the relative pressure
is usually called gauge pressure (psig). The
atmospheric pressure is nothing more than the
barometric pressure.
• Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric
• Another term with which you should become
familiar is vacuum. When you measure the
pressure in inches of mercury vacuum,” you are
reversing the direction of measurement from the
reference pressure, the atmospheric pressure, and
toward zero absolute pressure, that is,
• Pvacuum = Patmospheric – Pabsolute