Data Communications &

Networking

B.S Ramanjaneyulu
SSDG, C-DAC Knowledge Park
Bangalore
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
 Used as Backbone technology on LAN systems.
 The first 100 Mbps technology.
 Decline in popularity after the introduction of 100 Mbps
fast Ethernet.
 Uses ‘double ring’. Two separate rings (primary &
secondary rings) with traffic running in opposite
directions.
 Stations are dual attachment stations (DAS). Stations
transmit on primary ring.
 If cable breaks, traffic is diverted through secondary
ring. But the distance traveled to reach a station is
doubled. So it should be rectified at the earliest.
 Another break of the cable creates two isolated rings.
 SONET /SDH
 Synchronous Optical Network (ANSI)
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ITU-T)
 Compatible
 Signal Hierarchy
 Synchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1) or Optical
Carrier level 1 (OC-1)
 51.84Mbps
 Carry DS-3 or group of lower rate signals (DS1 DS1C
DS2) plus ITU-T rates (e.g. 2.048Mbps)
 Multiple STS-1 combined into STS-N signal
 ITU-T lowest rate is 155.52Mbps (STM-1)
 TDM Hierarchy

 DS-1 can carry mixed voice and data signals

 24 channels used
 No sync byte
 Can also interleave DS-1 channels
 Ds-2 is four DS-1 giving 6.312Mbps
SONET Frame Format
 In Channel Signaling
 Use same channel for signaling and call
 Requires no additional transmission facilities
 Inband
 Uses same frequencies as voice signal
 Can go anywhere a voice signal can
 Impossible to set up a call on a faulty speech path

 Out of band
 Voice signals do not use full 4kHz bandwidth
 Narrow signal band within 4kHz used for control
 Can be sent whether or not voice signals are present
 Need extra electronics
 Slower signal rate (narrow bandwidth)
Drawbacks of In Channel Signaling

 Limited transfer rate

 Delay between entering address (dialing)
and connection
 Overcome by use of common channel
signaling
 Common Channel Signaling
 Control signals carried over paths independent of
voice channel
 One control signal channel can carry signals for a
number of subscriber channels
 Common control channel for these subscriber lines
 Associated Mode
 Common channel closely tracks interswitch trunks
 Disassociated Mode
 Additional nodes (signal transfer points)
 Effectively two separate networks
Common v. In Channel Signaling
 Signaling System Number 7
 SS7
 Common channel signaling scheme
 ISDN
 Optimized for 64k digital channel network
 Call control, remote control, management and
maintenance
 Reliable means of transfer of info in sequence
 Will operate over analog and below 64k
 Point to point terrestrial and satellite links
 High Level Data Link Control

 HDLC
 ISO 33009, ISO 4335
 HDLC Station Types

 Primary station
 Controls operation of link
 Frames issued are called commands
 Maintains separate logical link to each secondary
station
 Secondary station
 Under control of primary station
 Frames issued called responses
 Combined station
 May issue commands and responses
 HDLC Link Configurations

 Unbalanced
 One primary and one or more secondary stations
 Supports full duplex and half duplex

 Balanced
 Two combined stations
 Supports full duplex and half duplex
 HDLC Transfer Modes (1)

 Normal Response Mode (NRM)

 Unbalanced configuration
 Primary initiates transfer to secondary
 Secondary may only transmit data in response to
command from primary
 Used on multi-drop lines
 Host computer as primary
 Terminals as secondary
 HDLC Transfer Modes (2)

 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

 Balanced configuration
 Either station may initiate transmission without
receiving permission
 Most widely used
 No polling overhead
 HDLC Transfer Modes (3)

 Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)

 Unbalanced configuration
 Secondary may initiate transmission without
permission form primary
 Primary responsible for line
 rarely used
 Frame Structure

 Synchronous transmission
 All transmissions in frames
 Single frame format for all data and control
exchanges
Frame Structure Diagram
 Flag Fields
 Delimit frame at both ends
 01111110
 May close one frame and open another
 Receiver hunts for flag sequence to synchronize
 Bit stuffing used to avoid confusion with data
containing 01111110
 0 inserted after every sequence of five 1s
 If receiver detects five 1s it checks next bit
 If 0, it is deleted
 If 1 and seventh bit is 0, accept as flag
 If sixth and seventh bits 1, sender is indicating abort
 Address Field
 Identifies secondary station that sent or will receive
frame
 Usually 8 bits long
 May be extended to multiples of 7 bits
 LSB of each octet indicates that it is the last octet (1) or not
(0)
 All ones (11111111) is broadcast
 Control Field

 Different for different frame type

 Information - data to be transmitted to user (next layer up)
 Flow and error control piggybacked on information frames
 Supervisory - ARQ when piggyback not used
 Unnumbered - supplementary link control

 First one or two bits of control filed identify frame

type
 Remaining bits explained later
Control Field Diagram
 Poll/Final Bit
 Usedepends on context
 Command frame
P bit
 1 to solicit (poll) response from peer

 Response frame
F bit
 1 indicates response to soliciting command
 Information Field

 Only in information and some unnumbered

frames
 Must contain integral number of octets
 Variable length
 Frame Check Sequence Field

 FCS
 Error detection
 16 bit CRC
 Optional 32 bit CRC
 HDLC Operation

 Exchange of information, supervisory and

unnumbered frames
 Three phases
 Initialization
 Data transfer
 Disconnect
Examples of Operation (1)
Examples of Operation (2)
 Other DLC Protocols (LAPB,LAPD)
 Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)
 Part of X.25 (ITU-T)
 Subset of HDLC - ABM
 Point to point link between system and packet switching
network node
 Link Access Procedure, D-Channel
 ISDN (ITU-D)
 ABM
 Always 7-bit sequence numbers (no 3-bit)
 16 bit address field contains two sub-addresses
 One for device and one for user (next layer up)
 Point-to-point Protocol (PPP)
 Connection to WAN through PPP
 Access control
 LCP (link control protocol) to establish connection. LCP
negotiates the capability.
 Password authentication protocol (PAP) or challenge
handshake authentication protocol (CHAP) for
authentication.
 Separate connection for each network-layer protocol, using
network connection protocol (NCP)
 Once the NCP exchanges are completed, the connection is
fully established & enters link open phase.
 Payload of upto 1500 bytes
 Includes FCS for error checking.