Chapter Two: Nature and Scope of Research

Theory:

 Formalized set of concepts that summarizes and organizes observations and inferences, provides tentative explanations for
phenomena, and provides the basis for making predictions.

 Major goal of a researcher could be to develop adequate theories that organize, predict and explain phenomena.

For a theory to be scientific, it must

 Be testable
 Make predictions that can be tested
• Predictions can be contradicted by empirical evidence

A good theory demands:

 A solid empirical base
 A set of carefully developed constructs – elements that make up theory (This is not created easily)

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Theory cont’d
Theories are carefully constructed from:
Empirical observations
Hypotheses
Inductive and deductive logic
Deduction: the process of deriving specific conclusions from general principles.

Example:
 Major premise: All men are mortal
 Minor premise: Socrates is a man
 Conclusion: Socrates is mortal

Induction: the process of establishing general principles from specific observations.

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Theory cont’d

Theory may enter into research in the following way:

Suggesting a problem for study
Providing a hypothesis to be tested
Providing conceptual model for limiting scope of the study
Selection of variables, classes of data
Making research findings intelligible

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Theory cont’d
General principles regarding the use of theory in research

Knowledge of existing theory in an area of research is essential;

Crucial components in theory: concepts (abstractions that allow us to select and order our
impressions and clear definitions are important)

Theories are hypothetical propositions not conclusive facts

 More alert to observations/data that challenge the theory

Pay close attention to all odds (unusual observations)

Unusual observations are sources of new theoretical approaches

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Theory helps a researcher in planning and directing his/her lines of study.

However, he/she should rely on empirical observations to test and refine the
theoretical prepositions.

Good theories have:

Coherence
Logic
Internal consistency

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 Research and Scientific Method
Scientific method is the pursuit(search) of truth as
determined by logical considerations.

Scientific method attempts to achieve the ideal by

experimentation, observation, logical arguments from
accepted postulates and a combination of these three in
varying proportions.

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 Cont…
Scientific method certain basic postulates

It relies on empirical evidence;

It utilizes relevant concepts;

It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but

making only adequate and correct statements about
population objects;

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 Research Methods versus Methodology
Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to all methods the researchers use
in performing research operations.

Research methods can be put into the following three groups:

 In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;

The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;

The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.

8
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 Research… Cont’d

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 Research methodology
 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

 It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

 It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also
the methodology.

 The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.

 Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate
the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or
techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.

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 Cont….
Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only
talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context of our research
study and explain why we are using a particular method or
technique and why we are not using others so that research
results are capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher himself or by others.

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 Cont….
Why a research study has been undertaken, how the
research problem has been defined, in what way and why
the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been
collected and what particular method has been adopted,
why particular technique of analyzing data has been used
and a host of similar other questions are usually answered
when we talk of research methodology concerning a
research problem or study.
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 Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows.
Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes
surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the
state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term.

The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables; he can only

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report what has happened or what is happening. 13
 Types… Cont’d
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods.

 In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use

facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.

Analytical Research

Unlike the Descriptive Research, the researcher has to use facts or

information already available, and analyse these to make critical
evaluation of the material (a certain phenomenon).
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 Types… Cont’d
Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or
action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organization.

Fundamental research: is mainly concerned with

generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

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 Types… Cont’d
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of

quantity or amount.

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in

terms of quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with

qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind.
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 Types… Cont’d
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behavior. Through such research we can analyze the
various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular
manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in
practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing
such research, one should seek guidance from experimental
psychologists.
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 Types… Cont’d
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior.

 Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s

insights and impressions. Such an approach to research
generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective
techniques and depth interviews are used.

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 Research proposal writing
A research proposal is something that is proposed to
what we need to do.
A research proposal should reflect:
What researchers are going to research?,
 Why researcher are going to research this particular
area?
 What is the significance of researching in this area? and
How researcher are going to conduct the research?
In general, a research proposal has the following
importance:-
 It determines the feasibility of the research,
 It uses as plan of the procedures for the researcher,
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 It helps to guide the researcher in the study. 19
 Research… Cont’d
Elements of Research proposal
I. Title
II. Summary/Abstract
III. Introduction/Background
IV. Statement of the Problem
V. Objective/Aim of the study
VI. Literature review
VII. Hypotheses /Questions
VIII. Significance of the Study / expected benefits
IX. Approach /Methods and procedures or Research methods,
materials and procedures
 Study area
3/2/2020 Study design 20
 Research… Cont’d
Study subjects
Eligibility Criteria
 Sample size
Sampling methods
 Method of data collection
Description of variables
Data quality assurance
Operational definitions
Plan of data analysis
IX. Work plan
X. Budget
XI. References
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 Research… Cont’d
A research proposal has the followings elements;
1. Title page/ cover page: it includes the following;
Name of the institute,
Department name,
Title,
Name of the researcher,
 Name of the advisor, and year.
NB:
The title of the research proposal should be clear, concise and which
reflects the content of the research.

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 Research… Cont’d
The title of the research must be brief, scientifically or technically
valid, intelligible to a scientifically or technically literate reader,
and suitable for use in the public press.

The title that should clearly demonstrates what the problem is and
why this is important.

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 Research… Cont’d
For instance
Title page
Institution Name
Title
By Submitted to:
A Group Research Proposal Submitted to the Department of
Information System, in College of Computing and Informatics,
under Wolkite University, in meeting the preliminary final
research project requirement for partial fulfillment for the
award of degree of Bachelor in Information System.
Wolkite, Ethiopia
November 2020
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 Research… Cont’d
Approval Sheet
• Approval Sheet
This Group Research Project Proposal en-titled “………………………………..” has been read and
approved as meeting the preliminary research requirements of the Department of Information System in
partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor in Information System, Wolkite University,
Wolkite, Ethiopia.
Research and Scholarly Communication Management Team Leader
_________________________________________________
Principal Advisor
______________________________________________________
Advisors
____________________________________________________________________

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 Research… Cont’d
Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement in scientific literature writing is a
statement of gratitude for friends, family, instructors,
advisors, organizations for assistance in producing a specific
work.
Table of Content
A table of content is an organized list of divisions (chapters
or articles) and the pages on which they start or the place
where they may be found in the order in which the parts
appear.
Table of Contents as a gateway through the document shall
be indexed or generated automatically using Microsoft
Word Processing option.
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 Research… Cont’d
List of Figures
figures, drawings, photos, maps in a research documents.
For instance
Figure 1. Information System Cycle page number
Abstract/project / executive summary : - it may contain one paragraph or one page. Your
abstract should includes the following:
 Motivation/objective:Why do we care about the problem and the results?
Problem statement: What problem is the paper trying to solve and what
is the scope of the work?
Approach:Which methodology have used to solve the problem?

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 Research… Cont’d
Introduction

 The introduction section leads the reader from a general subject area to a
particular field of research.

 In an introduction, you should

• create reader interest in the topic,

• lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,

• place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and

• reach out to a specific audience.

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 Research… Cont’d
Problem Statement
This statement gives a clue about what exactly is being researched and
why.

To show the importance of the problem, this section may discuss such
points as:
How the research relates to the development priorities of the country or
countries concerned;
The scientific importance of the problem;
The magnitude of the problem and how the research results will
contribute to its solution;
The special importance of the research for vulnerable social groups
 The need to build up research capacity in the proposed area of
research.

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 Research… Cont’d
Objective
General objective:- it is the main objective that are focused on overall
statement of the thrust of the study
Specific Objective:- The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic
that the researcher want to investigate within the main framework of the study.
They should be listed.
Wording should clearly, complete and specific.
Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.

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 Research… Cont’d
Specific objectives
Specific objectives are statements of precise outcomes that can
be measured in support of the project's general objective.
Properly written specific objectives should be SMART
• Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Timely
• Keep the specific objectives simple
Specific objectives should start with words such as
‘To determine’,
‘To find out’,
‘To ascertain’, etc.

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 Research… Cont’d
Research Questions or Hypotheses
scope of the study
Limitations and Delimitations (Optional) of the Study
Limitations are factors, usually beyond the researcher's control, that may
affect the results of the study or how the results are interpreted
Delimitations are factors that affect the study over which the research
generally does have some degree of control. Delimitations describe the scope
of the study or limits for the study.

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 Research… Cont’d

Significance

 Why you select this topic?

 What do you hope to learn from it?

 What will this new knowledge add to the field of knowledge that already exists
on this topic?

 What new perspective will you bring to the topic?

 What use might your final research paper have for others in this field or in the
general public?

 Who might you decide to share your findings with once the project is

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 Research… Cont’d
Definition of Terms
provides definitions for terms used in the proposal that are
unusual or not widely understood. In addition, common terms
that have special meaning in the study should be defined in this
section.
Organization of the Study
• To know what information will be found in each chapter.
example:
Chapter 1: has presented the introduction, statement of
the problem, research questions, significance of the study,
definition of terms, and limitations of the study.

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 Research… Cont’d
Chapter : 2
• Related Literature
Chapter:3
Methodology/Research Design and Methodology
 Research Method used
 Population of the Study/Data Collection Method
Sampling Techniques and Sample Size/Analysis
 Instrumentations/Design
Procedure of Data Collection/Specification

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 Research… Cont’d

• Budgeting
• Action Plan
• Summary
Bibliography
Appendices

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 Research Process

The Research Process involves the following:

1. Selecting a topic
2. Formulation of the research problem
3. Literature review
4. Developing objectives and hypothesis formulation
5. Design of Research
6. Execution of the project : Data collection, analysis and
interpretation

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 Selecting a topic
• All writing begins with a topic.

• Look for a subject

• that interests you and will maintain your interest throughout the various
stages of research

• that will help you to obtain the maximum self-development from the
research project. /It should be related with your career.

• Some preliminary reading will help to determine the extent of

your interest.

• Keep in mind the time allotted to you and the expected length
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 Selecting a topic
• You Commonly begin with fairly general topic and then refine it by
research and thought into a more specific one.
• Try to narrow your topic by focusing on a particular aspect of a
particular approach.
• Be original as much as you can, to avoid duplicate work on a
specific topic
• Review as much Literature as possible to avoid duplication.
• Before beginning the research, make sure you understand the
amount and depth of research required and the type of paper
expected.
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 Identify broad area of study

Supervisor agreed

Initial selection of topic

yes
Is the research feasible? No Can topic be appropriately
refined?
yes
Has research sufficient value? No

yes
Is there sufficient scope? No

yes
Acceptable topic
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 Formulating the Research Problem
The task of formulating, or defining a research problem is a step of
greatest importance in the entire research process.

It is important because,

(1) It determines the data to be collected,

(2) It determines the characteristic of the data which

are relevant,

(3) it determines the choice of techniques to be used.,

(4) It determines the form of the final report.

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 Formulating … cont’d
Some general principles in problem formulation
Be sure the problem exists

Learn as much as possible about the problem to be solved

Consider alternative formulations in case this is not feasible;

Be aware that the problem formulation may influence the

phenomena being studied;

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 Formulating … cont’d
Evaluation of a research problem (some questions to ask):

Is the problem in line with my goal/expectations and the

expectation of others?

Will the solution of the problem advance knowledge?

What is the value of potential outcome? (who are the

beneficiaries?)

Do I possess or can I acquire the necessary skills, abilities and

background knowledge to study the problem? (Researcher’s
capability and interest)
3/2/2020 Will data be accessible? 43
 Research Problem  Research
Questions
• Pre-Empirical Stage
• Research Area
• Literature Problem Questions
• Context
• Empirical Stage (What data Hypothesis
is required to answer the
questions?)
• Design
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis
• Answer Questions
/Test Hypothesis
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 Literature Review
The researcher should also examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem.

• Extensive review is required to know:

 What others have done in the area?

 How did they do it?

 What were the research variables?

 How were the variables measured?

 What were the constraints (restriction)?

 What could possibly be modified?

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 Literature Review
• The researcher may review two types of literature
• Conceptual literature
Concerning the concepts and theories (related to fact).
• Empirical literature
Consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to
the one proposed.

Basic Outcome of the review

• To understand what data and other materials are available for
operational purposes

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 Literature Review
• Literature survey and Formulating the problem are interrelated, since the
problem will be specifically defined if extensive literature survey is done.

• Journals, published or unpublished bibliographies, Conference

proceedings, Government Reports are the 1st places to go

Remember – One Source leads to another

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 Literature Review
• The researcher has to look into the following factors in
his/her judgment on point of literature concentration;
Style of research;
The overall strategy of research;
Objectives of the proposed study;
The nature of the substantive (practical) problem and how much is
known about it;
The development of the literature in the area;
The degree of desire of the study to follow the directions

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established by the literature; 48
 Literature Review
Guidelines for review of literature

The researcher should seek answers for the following:

• What variables are known to be related to the problem?

• How have these variables been studied and described by others?

• How have these variables been manipulated in previous studies?

• Has research in the past on those variables used sound

methodology?

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 Developing objectives and Working Hypothesis

Some guidelines in developing objectives:

• Objectives must be specific, tangible and achievable statements;

• The objectives should clearly fit to the statement of the problem

• The objectives must propose to do things as per the capability of

the design of the study.

• Objectives should be in their approximate order of importance.

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 Developing objectives and Working Hypothesis

A hypothesis must be
• Specific

• Conceptually clear in terms of common definitions

• Testable (verification or rejection) by available techniques and

resources;

• Related to a body of theory;

• Stated to provide direction for the research;

• Formulated as causal relationships;

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 Developing objectives and Working Hypothesis

• Some examples of hypothesis

• Improved training provision will create a more productive reliable and
satisfied workforce

• Smoking and lung cancer are independent

• Income and consumption are not related

As a general rule a working hypothesis is another basic step of

the research process in most research problems --- but may not
be always necessary

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 Design of the Research
• Once the research problem is formulated and working hypothesis
developed, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design.

• Research design refers to the arrangement of the conditions for

collection and analysis of data in a manner that will satisfy or
achieve the objectives of a research undertaking.
• It is intended to enable the researcher to answer questions as validly,
objectively, accurately and economically as possible;

• It provides for the collection of relevant data with minimum effort, time
and money.

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 Design of research
It sets up the framework for adequate tests of relationships
among study variables.

It tells what observations to make/what variables to measure,

how to make them/measure them, and how to analyze the data;

It suggests how many observations to make and the type of

statistical analysis to use;

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 Design of research
• The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following.
• The time available for research

• the finance available for the purpose

• the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any)

• Identifying the study variables

• Identifying study subjects / experimental units,

• Planning the means of obtaining the information and reasoning leading to

selection.
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 Design of research
Whatever method the researcher chooses, he/she has to design the
empirical stage (experiment /survey/observation);

Method selection

• Quantitative –vs- Qualitative methods

Or a combination of both

The Research design will be discussed in detailed in a separate section

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 Execution of the project
If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable.

• Data collection may involve

 Field survey / experiments
 Laboratory experiments
 Observation
 Document scanning
 Interview, etc.

• Data Analysis
 Quantitative data – quantitative figures

 Qualitative data – analytical thinking

 Hypothesis testing

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• Generalizations and Interpretation 57
 Reporting
• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done
by him/her, in writing the report,

• Communicating to others
 Peers;

 Policy makers;

 Developers;

 Extension workers;

 General public

• The style and content varies depending on to whom the researcher

is writing
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 Summary

Identify a broad area of study

Select the Research topic

Decide the approach

Formulate the plan

Collect the data or information

Analyze and interpret the data

3/2/2020 Present the findings 59