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MCL211L: Design of Machines
[Credit: 3 (L-T-P: 3-0-0)]
Prerequisite courses: Engineering Mechanics,

Mechanics of Solids (Strength of Materials),
Material Science,
Mechanical Engineering Drawing,
Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines
Prof. R. K. Pandey
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
I.I.T. Delhi, New Delhi-110016, India
Email: rajpandey@mech.iitd.ac.in
Objectives of course
To provide training to students in the process of design of
machine elements/components in general for assembling
them to make machines in particular .
Syllabus (as per courses of study 2020-2021)

Conceptualization of a machine in terms of geometrical
requirements specified in terms of functional degrees of
freedom, degrees of constraints and stiffness.
Synthesis of an assembly from machine components to

meet the functional requirements.
Sizing machine components and selecting material through
use of free body diagrams, failure theories in static and
repeated loading.
Design and selection of certain machine elements (i.e.
cams, gears, belt, pulleys, bearings, springs, shaft/axle,
plates, nuts and bolts, brake/ clutch)
Case studies (like Gearbox driven by motor using belt

drive) through use of parametric software to carry out
iteration in the design space.
Going to study
 How to design various machine
elements/components which can be assembled to
make machines.
 Factors of safety.
 Materials selection especially carbon steels.
 Static and fatigue design based on relevant failure
theories.
 Design of common machine elements such as power
screws, fasteners, shafts, bearings, gears, springs
etc.
 Few case studies demonstrating the use of design
approach covered in this course.
What you learn?
To determine size and shape of machine

elements/components found in machinery
for adequate strength/stiffness/life based
on static/fatigue failures criteria as per the
case.
R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi 5

Text books
 R. L. Norton, Machine Design: An Integrated
Approach, Prentice Hall/Pearson Press. (Main book)
 J. E. Shigley et al., Mechanical Engineering

Design, McGraw-Hill. (Few machine elements from
this book)
 R. L. Mott, Machine Elements in Mechanical

Design, Prentice Hall/Pearson Press. (Few machine
elements from this book)
Machine Design: An Integrated Approach by Robert L.
Norton (Main text book)

Mechanical Engineering Design by J. E. Shigley and co-
authors, McGraw-Hill Pub.

Machine Elements in Mechanical Design by R. L. Mott,
Prentice Hall/Pearson Press

Background (courses completed) required
for this course
1. Engineering Mechanics,
2. Mechanics of Solids (Strength of Materials) ,
3. Material Science,
4. Mechanical Engineering Drawing,
5. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines,
6. Manufacturing Processes

Sequence of topics to be covered
Module Topic Assignments
1. (a)Introduction to Engineering Design.

(b) Procedure for Simple Case of
2-3 problems on
Steady Loading. c) Factor of Safety. d)
each topics will
Material Selection – Carbon steels.
be given for
2. (a) Failure Criteria. (b) MED solving using the
Procedure for Combined Loads -
materials covered
Design Check Approach.
in this course (or
3. Power Screw Design - Static Loads previously
4. Threaded Fasteners Design – Static studied)
Loads
5. Design procedure for Fatigue Load
6. Design of Machine Elements/

Mechanical systems
Attendance policy
It is expected that every student attend all
the classes. However, due to COVID-19
issue, there is no minimum attendance
maintaining requirement.
Audit pass: 30% marks (i.e. 30 out of 100)

There will not be any re-minor test. If
one misses (due to any reasons) minor
test, he/she will get 80% marks of
average class marks of minor test.
D grade will be awarded to students at

30% marks.

Evaluation scheme
Minor Test (120 minutes test) : 20 Marks

Quiz/Viva-voce : 25 Marks
Problems solved/assignments : 15 Marks
Major Test (120 minutes) : 40 Marks
-------------------------------------------------------
100 Marks
-------------------------------------------------------

How to contact course coordinator?
Dr. R. K. Pandey
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
I.I.T. Delhi, New Delhi – 110 016, India
Office room: III-341
E-mail: rajpandey@mech.iitd.ac.in
(NB: If you are not able to meet coordinator in his office,
please send an e-mail for the appointment or for getting
the response of your query through e-mail itself.)
What is expected of you?
• It is essential to attend all the classes since “design of
machines” cannot be learnt just by reading but by doing.
• Bring the main text book and handouts to the lecture and
practice classes.
• Keep separate note books for lecture and practical/design
classes.
• Will aid in studying for examinations
• Will aid review
• Submit assignments and practice exercises as and when
called for.
• Bring calculator (in lectures and practical classes), pencil,
eraser, and a 150 mm scale (i.e. ruler) in all classes.
Design Note Book
A design notebook should be

used to record all ideas, no
matter how insignificant they
seem at the time.
A well-documented
notebook is critical for
recording ideas for later
synthesis and to provide
legal groundwork for patents
and other proof of
intellectual ownership.
Review of few topics of Mechanics, Material Science and Strength
of Materials
Free body diagram
Free body diagram (FBD) is a graphical
illustration used to
visualize the applied
forces, moments, and
resulting reactions on a
body in a given
condition particularly in
equilibrium condition.
FBD depicts a body or
connected bodies with
all the applied forces
and moments, and
reactions, which act on
the body.
Free body diagram

Reactions

Beam and Diving board

Curved beam

Review (Material Science)
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines standards
for test specimens and test procedures for a variety of material-property
measurements. The most common material test used is the tensile test.
F

The bar is stretched slowly in tension until A0
it breaks, while the load and the distance
across the gage length (or alternatively the l  lo l
strain) are continuously monitored.  
R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi l0 l0 24
Stress and Strain

Failed samples of ductile Failed samples of brittle
material under tension material under tension
Failed samples of brittle

Failed samples of ductile material under compression
material under compression
Bending Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a) Ductile
Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron
Torsion Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a)

Ductile Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron
Engineering stress–strain curve—hot-rolled 1020 steel
Resilience and toughness
Stress-strain curves ;(a)
Low-Carbon Steel, (b)
Annealed High-Carbon
Steel, (c) Brittle material

Typical stress-strain diagram for different steels
X (Incorrect)
(a) Ductile material (b) Brittle material

Stress-strain diagram obtained from the standard tensile test;
Source: Mechanical Engineering Design by J. E. Shigley and co-authors,
McGraw-Hill Pub.
Even
materials
Uneven
materials
Typical stress-strain
diagram for different
materials
Types of simple loading
R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi

Direct Tensile or Compressive Stress
•Direct axial stress: s = F/A

•Here tensile stress is shown

Bending and Shear Stress
Bending stress and shear stress in a beam in bending
Bending stress Shearing stress

in a beam due to its in a beam in bending
deflection in bending

Bending Stress

Torsional Stress
• Torsional Shear Stress: t = Tr
J

Bearing stress
• Definition: Bearing stress is the

average compressive normal stress
acting over a contact surface, found
by dividing the resultant load by the
projected area.
• Occurs in joints, connections, pins,
etc.
• anywhere you have surfaces in contact
• Actual contact stresses are very Projected Area
complicated; bearing stress analysis = rectang. area
is a simple way to estimate the stress.

Bearing stress
• Bearing Stress
σb = Force/Projected Area
= P/ td
in this particular case
• Note: bearing stress is

compressive, but we typically drop the
minus sign since we know it’s compressive.

Design can mean many things to many people
Design
Design Design Design Design

Holiday Clothes Furniture Components
Trip or Tour (Fashion or
Design) Equipments
Engineering has played a predominant role
in the greatest social evolution that the
world has witnessed.
Engineering is art of directing the great

sources of power present in nature for the
convenient use of humans.
Engineering has contributed
in development of faith, hope,
beauty, charity, and truth
and also provided social
justice.
Engineering must provide
solutions for vital world
problems such as production
of food stuffs, fuels, power
and transportation which
have posed a challenge to
society.
What is science?
Word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge.
Science is an intellectual activity carried on

by humans i. e. designed to discover
information about the natural world in
which humans live and to discover the ways
in which this information can be organized
into meaningful patterns.
Science consists simply of the
formulation and testing of
hypotheses based on observational
evidence; experiments are important
where applicable, but their function
is merely to simplify observation by
imposing controlled conditions.
Definition of Engineer
Engineers study human needs

and nature and their activity is
co-existent with civilization.
Engineers recognize a want and
try to meet it.
(The success of engineering lies in the
fact that whatever is produced through
application of the knowledge must be of
some use or value to man.)
Engineers are more humanists
than scientists because of their
involvement in every phase of
human activity.
Engineers job does not end up in making
machines and setting up factories – they
also have to think of human reaction to
environment and so are constantly
involved in the problems of law,
economics and sociology.
What is technology?
Technology is a
product of
engineering and
science.
What is design?
To design is to imagine and

specify things that do not exist,
usually with the aim of bringing
them into the work.
 The “things” may be machines,
buildings and bridges.
 The “things” may be procedure,

plans of marketing, manufacturing
processes, or for solving the
scientific research problem by
experiments.
 The “things” may be works of art
paintings or music or sculpture.
Virtually every professional activity
has a large component of design,
although usually combined with the
tasks of bringing the designed things
into the real world.”
Engineering design?
Engineering design is the systematic,
intelligent generation and evaluation
of specifications for artifacts whose
form and function achieve stated
objectives and satisfy specified
constraints.
Engineering design is the organized,
thoughtful development and testing of
characteristics of new objects that have
a particular configuration for
performing some desired function(s)
that meet our aims without violating
any specified constraints.
Machine Design is
multidisciplinary endeavor.
1. Adaptive design
2. Developmental design
3. New design
Typical design procedure (involves iterations)
1. Recognition of need and brain storming
2. Synthesis of mechanism
3. Analysis of mechanism
4. Material selection
5. Stresses and size determination
6. Production drawing
7. Fabrication of prototype
8. Testing and modification
9. Sell and feedback from field
10. Modification
Safety in Mechanical Design
Babylonian doctrine (over 3000 years old):

“If a builder builds a house for a man and
does not make its construction firm, and
the house which he/she has built collapse
and cause the death of the owner of the
house, that builder shall be put to death.”
If 500 tension tests are conducted
in the laboratory on a specimen
of one material, 500 different
yield strengths will be obtained
even if precision and accuracy of
measurements are high enough.
Factor of safety (FS)
Factor of safety is a factor introduced

in design of machine components due
to uncertainty or ignorance.
FS is used:
 To reduce allowable strength/load

(due to uncertainty in
material strength).
 To increase the applied load/applied
stress (due to uncertainty in loading).
Allowable strength
FS (when load is proportional to stress) = _________________________________________________________________________
Applied strength
Syt Sut
=
_____________________
= _____________________
 
Allowable load
FS = _________________________________________________________________________
Applied load
Fallow
= _____________________
FApplied
Counter conformal contacts
Counter
conformal
contacts
F = K. (Conformal)
F = K.2 (Concentrated contacts

Major difficulty in design is to
decide appropriate factor of
safety (FS).
????
Design of ceiling fan hanging rod
Statement of problem
A ceiling fan weighs 200 N. It is supported from the ceiling
by a AISI 1020 Cold Drawn (CD) steel (Sy = 393 MPa)
steel rod of 10 mm diameter. Will the rod fail?
What is the incorporated Factor

of safety
FOS=155
Choosing proper factor of
safety is one of the difficult
and challenging aspect of
design which a beginners
face.
Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi, India
The question is what one should
do. One way is to study previous
similar designs for similar
application and take a decision
based on this.

It may be helpful, especially for a
beginner/budding designer to
systematically determine total factor
of safety as product of individual
factor of safety.

To do this, for example: the variation
of the following eight measures which
influence the factor safety can be
considered; others can be added based
on the experience.

1. Material Properties (FSM)
2. Stress (FSS)
3. Geometry (FSG)
4. Failure Analysis (FSFA)
5. Desired Reliability (FSR)
6. Environmental Factors (FSE)
7. Danger to Personnel (FSD) And
8. Economic Impact (FSEI)

1. Contribution due to material
properties (FSM)
2. Contribution due to incomplete
knowledge of load/ stresses (FSS)
3. Contribution due to geometry
resulting from tolerances (FSG)
4. Contribution due to accuracy of failure
analysis and the confidence one has
in them (FSFA)
5. Contribution because of
reliability desired (FSR)
6. Contribution due to
environment effect (FSE)
7. Factor to consider danger
to personnel (FSD)
8. Factor to consider economic
impact (FSEI)

The product of these factor of
safeties yield the total factor of
safety or the design factor of
safety (FSd) and decided before
proceeding with the design.
FSd = FSM  FSS  FSG  FSFA 

FSR  FSE  FSD  FSEI

Guidelines for the choice of the factors
of safety :
Contribution of the material:
FSM=1.0; material properties are well known.
(e.g. designer conducts test on material)
FSM = 1.1; material properties from a handbook
or are manufacturer's values.
FSM = 1.2 - 1.4; material properties are not well
known.(Some even suggest FSM
value upto 1.6)
Contribution of the load/stress:
FSS = 1.0 - 1.1; load is well defined
FSS = 1.2 - 1.3; overload of 20 - 30 %
FSS= 1.4 - 1.7; load is not well known or
the stress analysis method
is of doubtful accuracy
FSS = 1.2 - 3.0; shock loading
(depends on rate of load
application)
Contribution for geometry:
FSG = 1.0; tolerances are tight

FSG = 1.1; tolerances are average
FSG = 1.2; dimensions are slack

Contribution for failure analysis:
FSFA = 1.0 -1.1; used failure theory

is accurate
FSFA = 1.2; used failure
theory is inappropriate
FSFA= 1.3- 1.5; failure analysis
theory is not well
developed

Contribution for reliability:
FSR = 1.1; reliability is less than 90%

FSR= 1.2 - 1.3; reliability is in the
range 92-98%
FSR= 1.4 - 1.6; reliability greater
than 99%
Contribution for environment:
FSE = 1.0 -1.6; temperature,

corrosion etc.
Danger to personnel (FSD) and Economic impact (FSEI):
FSD
Characteristics Not Very

Serious
Serious Serious
Not-S 1.0 1.2 1.4

FSEI Serious
1.0 1.3 1.5
Very -S
1.2 1.4 1.6

Thank you for your
kind attention
Dr. R. K. Pandey, Associate Professor,

MCL211 (Lect.): Design of Machines
[Credit: 3 (L-T-P: 3-0-0)]

Material Science,
Prof. R. K. Pandey
R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi,
1
New Delhi-110016, India


2
repeated loading.


3
Mainly going to study
 How to design various machine elements/components
which can be assembled to make machines.
 Static and fatigue design based on relevant failure theories.
 Design of common machine elements such as power screws,

fasteners, shafts, bearings, gears, springs etc.
 Few case studies demonstrating the use of design approach

covered in this course.
4
What you learn?

case.

5
Text books
Design, McGraw-Hill. (Few machine elements from this
book)
 R. L. Mott, Machine Elements in Mechanical Design,
Prentice Hall/Pearson Press. (Few machine elements from
this book)
 Michael F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical
Design, Butterworth-Heinemann Pub. (Material
selection from this book)
6

7
authors, McGraw-Hill Publication.

8

9
Michael F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical
Design, Butterworth-Heinemann Pub.

10
for this course

11
1. (a)Introduction to Engineering Design;

(b) Review of few topics from previous
courses; (c) Factor of Safety; (d) Materials
Selection (mainly Carbon steels)
2-3 problems on
2. (a) Static Failure Theory; (b) Design each topics will
Procedure for Combined Loads (Design be given for
Check Approach).
solving
3. Power Screw Design (For Static Load)
4. Threaded Fasteners Design (For Static
Loads)
5. Fatigue failure theory; Design Procedure for
Fatigue Load
Mechanical systems (Power screws,
fasteners, shafts, bearings, gears, springs
etc.)
Attendance policy

13

30% marks.

14
Evaluation scheme

______________________________________
100 Marks
______________________________________

15
Dr. R. K. Pandey
Professor
16
What is expected of you?
• It is essential to attend all the classes since “design of
machines” cannot be learnt just by reading but by doing.
• Bring the main text book and handouts to the lecture and
practice classes.
• Keep separate note books for lecture and practical/design
classes.
• Will aid in studying for examinations
• Will aid review
• Submit assignments and practice exercises as and when
called for.
• Bring calculator (in lectures and practical classes), pencil,
eraser, and a 150 mm scale (i.e. ruler) in all classes.
17
Design Note Book
A design notebook should be

used to record all ideas, no
matter how insignificant they
seem at the time.
A well-documented notebook
is critical for recording ideas
for later synthesis and to
provide legal groundwork for
patents and other proof of
intellectual ownership.

18
Review of few topics of Mechanics, Material Science and
Strength of Materials
Free body diagram
(FBD) is a graphical
illustration used to
visualize the applied
forces, moments, and
resulting reactions on a
body in a given
condition particularly in
equilibrium condition.
FBD depicts a body or
connected bodies with
all the applied forces
and moments, and
reactions, which act on
the body.
19
Free body diagram

20
Supports/
Reactions

21
Reactions/constraints corresponding to different supports

22
Free body diagram (FBD)

23
Beams (Theoretical vs. Real)

24
Curved beam (Crane hook)

25
Stress Deformation
Extrados Intrados

26
Review (Material Science)
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines standards
for test specimens and test procedures for a variety of material-property
measurements. The most common material test used is the tensile test.
F

The bar is stretched slowly in tension until A0
it breaks, while the load and the distance
across the gage length (or alternatively the l  lo l
strain) are continuously monitored.  
l0 l0 27
Stress and Strain Stress is the
term used
to define
the
intensity
and
direction of
the internal
forces
acting at a
given point
on a
particular
plane.
28
29
Failed samples of ductile Failed samples of brittle
material under tension material under tension
Failed samples of brittle

Failed samples of ductile material under compression
material under compression
30
Bending Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a) Ductile
Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron
Torsion Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a)

Ductile Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron
31
Engineering stress–strain curve—hot-rolled 1020 steel
32
Resilience and toughness
33
Stress-strain curves ;(a)
Low-Carbon Steel, (b)
Annealed High-Carbon
Steel, (c) Brittle material

34
Typical stress-strain diagram for different steels
35
X (Incorrect)
(a) Ductile material (b) Brittle material

Stress-strain diagram obtained from the standard tensile test;
Source: Mechanical Engineering Design by J. E. Shigley and co-authors,
McGraw-Hill Pub.
36
Even
materials
Uneven
materials
Typical stress-strain
diagram for different
materials
37
Stress-strain curves of different metals

38
Types of simple loading

Direct Tensile or Compressive Stress
•Direct axial stress: s = F/A

•Here tensile stress is shown

40
Bending and Shear Stress
Bending stress and shear stress in a beam in bending
Bending stress Shearing stress

in a beam due to its in a beam in bending
deflection in bending

41
Bending Stress

42
Torsional Stress
• Torsional Shear Stress: t = Tr
J

43
Bearing stress
• Bearing stress is the average
compressive normal stress acting over
a contact surface, found by dividing
the resultant load by the projected
area.
• Occurs in joints, connections, pins,

etc. anywhere you have surfaces in
contact
• Actual contact stresses are very

complicated; bearing stress analysis
is a simple way to estimate the stress.
44
Bearing stress
σb = Force/Projected Area = P/ td

45
Knuckle
Joint
Cotter
Joint

46
Knuckle joint
Hand pump
Joints between the tie

bars in roof trusses

47
Hinged
joint
Bicycle
chain

48
Knuckle
joint
(used in hand
pump)

49
Free
Body
Diagram

50
51
52
Cotter joint
 Joint between
piston rod and
crosshead in
steam engine.
 Slide spindle
and fork of
valve
mechanisms
 Piston rod and

pump rod
 Foundation bolt
53
 Joint between
piston rod and
crosshead in
steam engine.
 Slide spindle
and fork of
valve
mechanisms
 Piston rod and

pump rod
 Foundation bolt

54
55
56
57
58
Eccentric axial loading and
resulting direct stress

59
Design can mean many things to many people
Design
Design Design Design Design

Holiday Clothes Furniture Components
Trip or Tour (Fashion or
Design) Equipments

60
Engineering has played a predominant role
in the greatest social evolution that the
world has witnessed.
Engineering is art of directing the great

sources of power present in nature for the
convenient use of humans.

61
Engineering has contributed
in development of faith, hope,
beauty, charity, and truth
and also provided social
justice.

62
Engineering must provide
solutions for vital world
problems such as production
of food stuffs, fuels, power
and transportation which
have posed a challenge to
society.

63
What is science?
Word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge.
Science is an intellectual activity carried on

by humans i. e. designed to discover
information about the natural world in
which humans live and to discover the ways
in which this information can be organized
into meaningful patterns.

64
Science consists simply of the
formulation and testing of
hypotheses based on observational
evidence; experiments are important
where applicable, but their function
is merely to simplify observation by
imposing controlled conditions.

65
Definition of Engineer
Engineers study human needs

and nature and their activity is
co-existent with civilization.

66
Engineers recognize a want and
try to meet it.
(The success of engineering lies in the
fact that whatever is produced through
application of the knowledge must be of
some use or value to society.)

67
Engineers are more humanists
than scientists because of their
involvement in every phase of
human activity.

68
Engineers job does not end up in making
machines and setting up factories – they
also have to think of human reaction to
environment and so are constantly
involved in the problems of law,
economics and sociology.

69
What is technology?
Technology is a
product of
engineering and
science.
70
What is design?
To design is to imagine and

specify things that do not exist,
usually with the aim of bringing
them into the work.

71
 The “things” may be machines,
buildings and bridges.
 The “things” may be procedure,

plans of marketing, manufacturing
processes, or for solving the
scientific research problem by
experiments.

72
 The “things” may be works of art
paintings or music or sculpture.
Virtually every professional activity
has a large component of design,
although usually combined with the
tasks of bringing the designed things
into the real world.”

73
Engineering design?
Engineering design is the systematic,
intelligent generation and evaluation
of specifications for artifacts whose
form and function achieve stated
objectives and satisfy specified
constraints.

74
Engineering design is the organized,
thoughtful development and testing of
characteristics of new objects that have
a particular configuration for
performing some desired function(s)
that meet our aims without violating
any specified constraints.

75
Machine Design is
multidisciplinary endeavor.
1. Adaptive design
2. Developmental design
3. New design

76
Typical design procedure (involves iterations)
1. Recognition of need and brain storming
2. Synthesis of mechanism
3. Analysis of mechanism
4. Material selection
5. Stresses and size determination
6. Production drawing
7. Fabrication of prototype
8. Testing and modification
9. Sell and feedback from field
10. Modification

77
Design concept

78
79
80
Safety in Mechanical Design
Babylonian doctrine (over 3000 years old):

“If a builder builds a house for a man and
does not make its construction firm, and
the house which he/she has built collapse
and cause the death of the owner of the
house, that builder shall be put to death.”

81
If 500 tension tests are conducted
in the laboratory on a specimen
of one material, 500 different
yield strengths will be obtained
even if precision and accuracy of
measurements are high enough.

82
Factor of safety (FS)
Factor of safety is a factor introduced

in design of machine components due
to uncertainty or ignorance.

83
FS is used:
 To reduce allowable strength/load

(due to uncertainty in
material strength).
 To increase the applied load/applied
stress (due to uncertainty in loading).

84
Allowable strength
FS (when load is proportional to stress) = _________________________________________________________________________
Applied strength
Syt Sut
=
_____________________
= _____________________
 
This definition of FS is correct, when load is linearly proportional to
stress, but incorrect when non-linearity exists between load and stress.
85
Allowable load
FS = _________________________________________________________________________
Applied load
Fallow
= _____________________
FApplied
This definition of FS is correct. when

load is linearly proportional to stress,
86
Counter conformal contacts
87
Counter
conformal
contacts
F = K. (Conformal)
F = K.2 (Concentrated contacts

88
Major difficulty in design is to
decide appropriate factor of
safety (FS).
????

89
Design of ceiling fan hanging rod

90
Statement of problem
A ceiling fan weighs 200 N. It is supported from the ceiling
by a AISI 1020 Cold Drawn (CD) steel (Sy = 393 MPa) rod
of 10 mm diameter. Will the rod fail?
What is the incorporated Factor

of safety (when rod is solid)
FOS=155 ???
91
FS (when rod is hollow):
OD=10 mm
ID=9 mm
Wall thickness= 0.5 mm

92
Choosing proper factor of
safety is one of the difficult
and challenging aspect of
design which beginners face.

93
The question is what one should
do. One way is to study previous
similar designs for similar
application and take a decision
based on this.

94
It may be helpful, especially for a
beginner/budding designer to
systematically determine total factor
of safety as product of individual
factor of safety.

95
To do this, for example: the variation
of the following eight measures which
influence the factor safety can be
considered; others can be added based
on the experience.

96
1. Material Properties (FSM)
2. Stress (FSS)
3. Geometry (FSG)
4. Failure Analysis (FSFA)
5. Desired Reliability (FSR)
6. Environmental Factors (FSE)
7. Danger to Personnel (FSD) And
8. Economic Impact (FSEI)

97
1. Contribution due to material
properties (FSM)
2. Contribution due to incomplete
knowledge of load/ stresses (FSS)
3. Contribution due to geometry
resulting from tolerances (FSG)
4. Contribution due to accuracy of failure
analysis and the confidence one has
in it (FSFA)

98
5. Contribution because of
reliability desired (FSR)
6. Contribution due to
environment effect (FSE)
7. Factor to consider danger
to personnel (FSD)
8. Factor to consider economic
impact (FSEI)

99
The product of these factor of
safeties yields the total factor of
safety or the design factor of
safety (FSd) and decided before
proceeding with the design.
FSd = FSM  FSS  FSG  FSFA 

FSR  FSE  FSD  FSEI

100
Guidelines for the choice of the factor of safety :
Contribution of the material:
FSM=1.0; Material properties are well known.

(e.g. designer conducts test on material)
FSM = 1.1; Material properties from a handbook
or are manufacturer's values.
FSM = 1.2 - 1.4; Material properties are not well
known.(Some even suggest FSM
value upto 1.6)
101
Contribution of the load/stress:
FSS = 1.0 - 1.1; Load is well defined

FSS = 1.2 - 1.3; Overload of 20 - 30 %
FSS= 1.4 - 1.7; Load is not well known or
the stress analysis method
is of doubtful accuracy
FSS = 1.2 - 3.0; Shock loading
(depends on rate of load
application)
102
Contribution for geometry:
FSG = 1.0; Tolerances are fine

FSG = 1.1; Tolerances are average
FSG = 1.2; Dimensions are slack

103
Contribution for failure analysis:
FSFA = 1.0 -1.1; Used failure theory

is accurate
FSFA = 1.2; Used failure
theory is inappropriate
FSFA= 1.3- 1.5; Failure analysis
theory is not well
developed

104
Contribution for reliability:
FSR = 1.1; reliability is less than 90%

FSR= 1.2 - 1.3; reliability is in the
range 92-98%
FSR= 1.4 - 1.6; reliability greater
than 99%

105

corrosion etc.

106

corrosion etc.

107
Danger to personnel (FSD) and Economic impact (FSEI):
FSD
Characteristics Not Very

Serious
Serious Serious
Not-S 1.0 1.2 1.4

FSEI Serious
1.0 1.3 1.5
Very -S
1.2 1.4 1.6

108
Each components will have different
FS (Decide the FSd): FSd in a mechanical system/machine
FSd = FSM  FSS  FSG  FSFA FSR  FSE  FSD  FSEI
Case-1: Solid rod
Case-2: Hollow rod (do/di)

109
Case-1: Solid rod FS (Decide the FSd)
FSM =1.1; FSS =1.0; FSG =1.0; FSFA =1.0; FSR = 1.0;
FSE =1.0; FSD =1.0; FSEI=1.0
FSd = FSM  FSS  FSG  FSFA FSR  FSE  FSD  FSEI
FSd =1.1x1.0x1.0x1.0x1.0x1.0x1.0x1.0x1.0 =1.1

110
Case-2: Hollow rod FS (Decide the FSd)
FSM =1.1; FSS =1.0; FSG =1.0; FSFA =1.0; FSR = 1.0;
FSE =1.0; FSD =1.0; FSEI=1.0
FSd =1.1 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 =1.1
What is
difference in
pipe and tube?

111
Strength of materials vs. Design
How does the Strength of Materials problem differ

from a Design problem?
 In the Statement
 In the Information or Data provided
 In the Solution Strategy
 In the Output or Results sought

112
Design problem
Design the rod to support a ceiling fan weighing
200 N (even the Weight might not be provided and
the Designer will have to figure it out)
Note
 Size is not stated but required to be found
 Shape is not stated but to be decided
 Material is not specified but to be selected
 Manufacturing process not mentioned
but to be decided

113
Ceiling Fan Rod Design
Designer required to take major decisions
1. Length of rod
2. Type of cross section
3. Cross sectional area of rod
4. Material and treatment to be used
5. Aesthetic considerations
6. Cost etc.
Note
All the above aspects might not be important or more aspects might
have to be added – the decision has to be taken by the Designer
after a well thought out process. More experienced the Designer
easier it would be. So design has to be learnt and cannot just be
studied from a book. R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi,
114
Constraints and Criteria in
Engineering Design
In engineering design, Cost, Weight, Power,
Torque, Space required (i.e., Size) etc. can
become Constraints (i.e. restrictions) in the
Design or become Criteria to evaluate the
Best Design out of the various Alternative
Designs.

115
Example:
Automobile design – Constraints and Criteria.
Constraint may be Cost or Size or Fuel consumption or

Driving comfort etc. or a combination.
Criteria may be Fuel consumption or Weight or Cost

etc. or a combination.
Constraints and Criteria are interchangeable but once

placed in one category it cannot be repeated in the other
category and a Designer has to carefully decide what are
the Constraints and Criteria when deciding the
specifications for the Design
116
Material Selection
in Design of
Machines

117

118
Evolution of engineering materials

119
Evolution of engineering materials with time
Evolution of
engineering
materials
with time

120
Menu of Engineering Materials (basic
families) for creating hybrid
121
Basic design
limiting
material
properties

122
Commonly used scales of hardness related to each other
and to the yield strength
123
Chart showing modulus for families of solids
124
Material property chart: Young’s modulus E is plotted against
the density ρ on log scales
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
Structures with components loaded in tension, bending, and
compression with material indices
136
Material selections (Carbon steels)
Steel is an alloy of Iron and Carbon. Plain
carbon steels constitute 80% of steel
produced. These are:
 Cheaper than alloy steels at least 2 to 6
times and even up to 100 times
 Wide range of properties (soft to hard)
suits industry needs (over wide range)
 Most widely used (in this course only
this will be used).
137
Why Carbon Steels?
Carbon Steels are still the most common

and widely used material in Industries. In
a first course on design it is suggested to
only use carbon steels as material. This
gives a good grounding and understanding
on how to select material such as carbon
steel. This knowledge can then be used to
select other materials when and if the need
arises in the field.
138
Classification of carbon steels
• Steels with wide range of carbon percentage and properties exist.
Hence classification is necessary. The American classification
commonly employed is AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) –
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) classification for plain
carbon steels. These have both Hot rolled (HR) and Cold Rolled
(CR)/Cold Drawn (CD) steels.
• The carbon content determines strength. Hence this is used to

designate them. Four digit number XXXX is used. First two digits, 10
are fixed for plain carbon steel. Next two digits are fixed for carbon
percentage.
• For example: AISI 1020 – 0.20 % carbon (average of the carbon
content varying between 0.18% to 0.23%)
• AISI 1045 – 0.45 % carbon (average)
• AISI 1025 - 0.25% average carbon percentage and it varies from
0.22 to 0.28% carbon content
• AISI 1050 means an average carbon content of 0.50%.
139
Low Medium and High Carbon Steels
It is useful to designate Low, Medium and High Carbon Steel, since their
properties, uses and heat treatment are different.
Low carbon steel (Carbon percentage < 0.30 %)

Low carbon steel can be carburized or case hardened but quenching
or tempering is uneconomical for increasing strength. Formability is
good and Strength is relatively low, though the outer layers can be
hardened by Case Hardening
Mild Steel (Carbon percentage < 0.20 %) is a commonly used term
which falls in the category of low carbon steel.
Medium carbon steel (0.30 % < Carbon percentage < 0.50%)
Quenching and tempering heat treatment of medium carbon steel
possible for hardening, ductility and machinability.
High carbon steel (0.55 < Carbon percentage < 1.00 %)
Quenching and tempering of high carbon steel possible.
Most costly, poor formability and weldability. Used for hacksaw
blades, cutters, agricultural equipment and in were considerable wear
140
and tear takes place and high hardness is desired.
Very High Percentage of Carbon
•Cast Iron (Carbon percentage > 3 %)

Cast iron has a relatively high percentage of
carbon compared to steel. (Steels have Carbon
percentage < 1.5%).
Cast Iron is brittle but easy to cast into various
shapes
•The range 1.5 % < Carbon percentage < 3 % is

not used commonly
141
Cold Drawn Steels
• As mentioned earlier carbon steel can either be Cold Rolled
(CR)/Cold Drawn (CD) or Hot Rolled (HR) when manufactured or
supplied by the steel industry. The consideration in their selection is
explained.
• Cold Drawn (CD) Steels

These are suitable:
Where processing not required.
To buy, cut if desired and use.
Where least processing, such as some drilling possible.
Where extensive processing such as machining not suitable
due to brittleness.
Where welding not required as it has poor weldability. Examples
where CD can be used are bicycle frames where extensive processing
is not required. Broken bicycle frame cannot be joined by welding
142
when made by cold CD steels.
Hot Rolled Steels
Hot Rolled (HR) Steels are:
Softer than CD Steels but can be heat-

treated.
Suitable where machining/welding/forging
operations are required.

143
Material Selection – Processing, Loading
and Strength
• Material selection depends on processing, loading

and strength desired, apart form environmental
aspects.
• As far as loading is concerned carbon steel can be
used under axial loads (tensile or compressive),
bending, shear, torsion and bearing loads.
• Cast iron is suitable only under pure compressive
loading. So choice between cast iron and carbon
steel may be made under pure compressive
loading.
144
Material Selection
based on Processing
• Considering aspects of processing following is guide in selecting
carbon percentage
• Machining
Mild steel very good can go up to Carbon percentage 0.35% i.e.
AISI 1035.
Higher the carbon percentage more difficult to machine as
hardness increases with carbon percentage.
• Forging
Up to 0.10 % carbon lost during forging.
Hence select carbon percentage slightly higher, say 0.40 to 0.50
% carbon i.e. AISI 1040 to AISI 1050 when selecting Carbon
steels for parts to be forged.
145
Table - Typical Uses for Plain Carbon Steel*
0.05-0.07 High-ductility wire
0.07-0.15 Rimmed steel is used for sheet, strip, rod, and wire where excellent surface finish
is required, such as body and fender stock, panels, deep-drawing strip, steel for lamps, hoods,
sectors, pawls, clutch and transmission covers, oil pans, and a multitude of deep-drawn and
formed products. It is also used for cold heading wire for tacks, rivets, and low-carbon wire
products. Killed steel should be used in preference to rimmed steel for carburized parts,
especially where both the rim and the core of rimmed steel are involved in the heat treatment.
In the process of “rimming in” practically all the carbon is transferred from outer part of the
ingot for a depth of several inches, to the inner part. A cross section of the ingot or of a shape
rolled or forged from it, will have an outer layer of almost pure iron and a core in which
carbon has concentrated correspondingly. If the part to be carburized has been forged or
machined in such a manner as to bring both the rim and the core metal into the case, irregular
distortion may be expected. These steels are of low tensile values and should not be selected
where much strength is desired. Cold drawing or rolling improve their hardness and strength
about 20% over the properties in the hot rolled condition. All the properties acquired by cold
working are, however, lost when these steels are heated to temperatures of 10000 F or higher.
These steels, being ferritic in structure, do not machine freely and should be avoided for nuts,
cut screws, and operations requiring broaching or smooth finish on turning. Cold drawing,
however improves their mach inability. The higher manganese varieties have improved
machinability and hardening properties.
*James F. Young, Material and Processes, 2nd edition, Asia Publishing House, 1962, pp303-
304.

146
0.08-0.18 Boiler plate, seamless, weldable boiler tubes, and ship
plate
0.15-0.20 Standard carburizing grades for wrist pins, camshafts,
drag links, clutch fingers, sheet and strip for fan blades and welded
tubing , and numerous forged parts where high strength is not
essential. This steel may be brazed, butt welded, and drawn into
various shapes but not as desirable for deep drawing operations as
1008 and 1010. It shows some improvement over SAE 1010 (AISI
1010) in machining but is not recommended for smooth threading,
turning, or broaching. The higher manganese variants improve
machinability and hardening properties. These steels carburise and
harden freer from soft spot than 1020
0.20-0.30 Small forgings, crank pins, gears, valves, crankshafts
(0.20-0.26), railway axels (0.23-0.30), cross heads, connecting
rods, rims of turbine gears, armature shafts in general (0.24-0.32)
and fishplates. They have

147
0.20 – 0.30 (contd.)
fair machining properties threading, broaching, and turning. Forgings usually

machine better without annealing or in the normalized condition. Axles, special
duty shafts, connecting rods, small and medium forging, cold upset wire and
rod, machinery steel, spring clips, solid turbine rotor and gear shafts, armature
for turbo-generators, key stock, shift and brake levers, forks, and anchor bolts.
They possess fair machining properties and deep hardening characteristics. The
higher manganese variants are used for larger section or where properties are
desired.

148
0.45 -0.55 Parts to be subjected to shock and heavy reversals of
stress. Shafts, railway coach axles, crank pins on heavy machines,
large size forgings such crankshafts, starter ring gears, spline shafts,
and for hard-drawn wire tempered and peened springs. Caution
should be used in water quenching this steel in parts of small
diameter or thin sections.
0.60-0.70 Drop forging dies, die blocks, bolt-heading dies, plate
punches set screws, self tapping screws, snap rings, valve
springs, cushion springs, clutch springs, lock washers, spring clips,
clutch discs, thrust washers, and parts for agricultural purposes,
such as frogs and standards.
0.70-0.80 Cold chisels, pick axes, wrenches, jaws for vises, shear
blades, hack saws, pneumatic-drill bits, wheels for railway service,
wire for structural work, automatic clutch discs, mower sections,
plow beams, etc.
149
0.80-0.90 Railway rails, plow shares, rock drills, circular saws, machine
chisels, punches and dies, lock pins, clutch discs, leaf springs, music wire,
mower knives.
1.00-1.10 Railway springs, machine tools, mandrels, springs, taps.
1.2-1.30 Files
1.3-1.5 Dies for wire drawing, paper knives, tools for turning iron.
1.5-1.6 Saws for cutting steels and dies for wire drawing.

150
Alloy Steels
 As stated in the first two digits of AISI-SAE

classification indicates the alloying element i.e.
whether it is plain carbon steel or any other alloy.
 First two digits change.
 ASTM (American Standards for Testing Materials)

classification is also available; used in gears which
specifies composition, heat treatment and mechanical
property levels.

151
152
Stresses and deflection/
deformation

153
Stress is the term used to define the intensity and
direction of the internal forces acting at a given point on
a particular plane.
The average stress is defined as force acting over an area:

𝜎 = F/𝐴
The stress at a point on a cross-section is:
𝜎 = Lt ∆𝐴→0 (∆F/ ∆𝐴) = 𝑑F/ 𝑑A=F/A0

154
3D & 2D stress of state
Stress
cube
Normal stress
(Tension and
compression)
Shear stress R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi,

155
3D state of stress at a given point can be shown
using a stress element (stress cube).
For normal: 𝜎𝑥x [on the (x) face in the (x) direction]
For shear: 𝜏𝑦𝑧 direction [on the (y) face in the (z) direction]
There are nine stress components. But moment equilibrium requires:
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥
Thus, there are only six independent stress components, three normal
and three shear.

156
When the stresses on one of the surfaces is zero, the state
of stress is called plane stress and the stress components
reduce to three: 𝜎𝑥, 𝜎𝑦 & 𝜏𝑥y

157
Consider a wedge shaped element
of unit depth subjected to plane
stress. Inclined plane is at “  ”
angle from x-axis.
When equilibrium of forces in the

direction of 𝜎 is set, it yields:
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2 + 𝜎𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛2 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
Using trigonometric identities it reduces to:
𝜎 = (𝜎𝑥+𝜎𝑦)/ 2 + [(𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦)/ 2] 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (1)

158
Similarly, by summing up the forces in the 𝜏 direction, it
yields:
𝜏 = − [(𝜎𝑥− 𝜎𝑦)/2] 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠(2) (2)
These two equations are called the plane-stress

transformation equations, where they can be used to
find the 𝜎 & 𝜏 in any desired direction defined by an
angle .
Note:
1 psi= 6895 Pa  7000 Pa = 7 kPa
1 ksi= 6.895E+6  7 MPa
159
Elements in plane stress
Stresses R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi, Forces 160
To find the maximum and minimum values of stress,
𝜎 equitation is differentiated and set the result equal
to zero.
𝑑𝜎/𝑑 = −(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦)𝑠𝑖𝑛(2) + 2 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠(2) = 0
Solving for angle 𝑝 results:
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑝 = 2𝜏𝑥𝑦/( 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎y)
The angle 𝑝 is called the principal angle, where its

two values define the directions of the maximum
and minimum normal stresses.
161
Substituting the values of 𝑝 in the 𝜎 and 𝜏 equations.
𝜎1, 𝜎2 =[(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦)/ 2] ± [( (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦)/2)2 + 𝜏2𝑥y]1/2

𝜏=0
At this angle, 𝑝, the normal stresses are maximum (𝜎1) and
minimum (𝜎2) and the shear stress 𝜏 = 0.
This direction is called the principal direction and the stresses are
called the principal normal stresses.
162
Similarly, finding the angle that defines the direction
associated with max and min values of shear stress, we get:
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2𝑠) = − (𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦)/ 2𝜏𝑥y

The difference between the max shear stress
angle (𝑠) and the principal angle (𝑝 ) is 450.
The principal shear stress and the corresponding

value of normal stress are found by substituting
𝑠 in equations (1) and (2):

163
𝜏1,2 = ±[((𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦 )/2)2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦2]1/2
𝜎 = (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦)/ 2

164
Problem: An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses: x=-16,000 psi,
y =- 6,000 psi, and txy= 4,000 psi. Determine the stresses acting on an
element inclined at an angle  = 45° with x-axis in ccw direction.

165
= - 5000 psi

166
Problem: A plane-stress condition exists at a point on the surface of a loaded
structure, where the stresses have the magnitudes and directions shown on the
stress element. Determine the stresses acting on an element that is oriented at a
clockwise angle of 15° with respect to the original element.

167
168
Problem: An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses x = 12,300
psi, y=-4,200 psi, and txy = -4,700 psi as shown below. (A) Determine the
principal stresses and show them on a sketch of a properly oriented element.
(B) Determine the maximum shear stresses and show them on a sketch of a
properly oriented element.
Solution:

169
170
171
Mohr’s circle diagram
𝜎 = (𝜎𝑥+𝜎𝑦)/ 2 + [(𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦)/ 2] 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (1)
𝜏 = − [(𝜎𝑥− 𝜎𝑦)/2] 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠(2) (2)
Eqns. (1) and (2) define a circle in the 𝜎-𝜏 plane.

This circle is known as Mohr’s circle, where it
provides a convenient method of graphically
visualizing the state of stress and it can be used to
find the principal stresses as well as performing
stress transformation.
172
Steps for constructing a Mohr’s circle diagram:
1. Given σ𝑥 , σ𝑦 & 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2. Draw the state of stress on a stress element.
3. Draw the 𝜎 and 𝜏 axes and locate the center at

(( σ𝑥+σ𝑦)/ 2 , 0).
4. Locate the two points that define the state of stress

[For the shear stress: if it tends to rotate the element “CW” it will be
located above the 𝜎 axis, and if it tends to rotate “CCW” it will be drawn
below the 𝜎 axis. The circle will pass through the two points and they
will be on opposite sides.]

173
5. The radius of the circle is equal to:
𝑟 = [( σ𝑥 − σ𝑦 )/2 ) 2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2]1/2
6. The principal normal stresses
are located on the intersection
points of the circle with 𝜎
axis, and these have the
values:
𝜎1,2 = 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 ± 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
7. The max shear stress is equal to
the radius.
8. The direction of the principal
axis, measured from the 𝑥
direction, is found by
determining the angle 2p from
the circle and rotating in the
same direction. New Delhi-110016, India
174
(a) tx1y1 is positive downward and the angle
2 is positive CCW; (b) tx1y1 is positive
upward and the angle 2 is positive CW.
175
Combined bending and
Torsional stresses

176
Example

177
178
179
Bending and torsional stresses at point ‘A’

180
Maximum shear stress and principal stress
Shear stress due to transverse loading at point B

181
Total shear stress at point ‘B’
Point ‘A’ has the larger principal stress in this case,

but note that the relative values of the applied torque
and moment determine which of these two points
will have the higher principal stress. Both points
must then be checked.

182
Practicals (of coming semester)
1. Diving board design
2. Screw jack
3. Jib crane
4. Shaft design (Gearbox problem)
.
.
.
10.
Total 10 (Ten) Practicals will be completed.

183
Practical-1 Diving board

184
185
186
Practical-2 Screw jack

187
188
Practical-3 Jib crane

189
Have you seen this type of load lifting?

190
191
192
193
194
Thank you for
your kind attention.
R. K. Pandey,
Professor,
Dept. of Mech. Engg.,
IIT Delhi, India
195
[Credit: 3 (L-T-P: 3-0-0)]

Material Science,
Prof. R. K. Pandey
1


2
repeated loading.


3


4
What you learn?

case.

5
Text books
book)
this book)
6

7

8

9

10
for this course

11

2-3 problems on
Check Approach).
solving
Loads)
Fatigue Load
etc.)
Attendance policy

13

30% marks.

14
Evaluation scheme

______________________________________
100 Marks
______________________________________

15
Dr. R. K. Pandey
Professor
16
Part-3

17
Lecture slides (of Part-3) include the
following topics:
1. Triaxial stresses (stresses in 3D)

2. Static failure theory
3. Design of screws and fasteners

18
Triaxial stresses
(Stresses in 3D)
Sources:
1. A. P. Boresi and O. M. Sidebottom, Advanced Mechanics of Materials; Wiley, 6th Edition, 2018.
2. J. M. Gere and S. P. Timoshenko, Mechanics of Materials; PWS/CBS Publisher, 2004.
3. R. C. Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials. Pearson, 6th edition, 2007.
19
Design of machine components require
the following aspects:
 The relationships between the external loads

applied to a component and intensity of
internal forces (stresses) acting within the
component.
 The deformation/stability of the component

under the action of the external loads.

20
21
22
Tensors are simply mathematical objects that can be used
to describe physical properties, just like scalars
and vectors. In fact tensors are merely a generalisation of
scalars and vectors; a scalar is a zero rank tensor, and
a vector is a first rank tensor.

23
The areas dAOBC , dAOAC , and
dAOAB are the projection of
area dAABC on the respective
coordinate planes.
24
25
Thus, we can write the stress vector on the oblique
plane P by summing the force vectors acting on the stress
element as shown in the figure:

26
27
Principal normal stresses No shearing stresses on the
principal plane ABC.
Principal stress vector σN

is the only stress vector
acting on the principal
plane and in the direction
of the unit normal vector N
to the principal plane.

28
29
Above three equations are linear homogeneous. Since all three direction
cosines can not be zero ( l2 + m2 + n2 = 1), the system of the linear
homogeneous equations has a nontrivial solution if and only if the
determinant of the coefficients of l , m , and n vanish. Thus, we have

30
Expansion of determinant yields:
This cubic polynomial equation has three roots σ1 , σ2 ,

and σ3 which are the principal normal stresses.

31
32
Finding the direction cosines of the principal stress σ1

33
Octahedral planes and octahedral Stress
In geometry,
an octahedron (plural: octah
edra) is a polyhedron with
eight faces, twelve edges,
and six vertices. The term is
most commonly used to
refer to the
regular octahedron, a
Platonic solid composed of
eight equilateral triangles,
four of which meet at each
vertex.
The octahedral planes are the oblique planes that intersect the
principal axes (1, 2, 3) at equal distance from the origin 0 as
shown in above figure The unit normal vectors to these planes
satisfy the relation: l2+m2+n2=1/3
(?? check 54.730)

34
The octahedral normal stress (σoct ) can be determined
from the following equation:
The principal stresses hold the following relations:
Or
Since
35
The octahedral shearing stress (τoct) can
be determined as follows:

36
37
Example:

38
39
40
The shear stresses are found as:
𝜏12= (𝜎1-𝜎2)/ 2 ,
𝜏23= (𝜎2-𝜎3)/ 2 ,
𝜏13= (𝜎1-𝜎3)/ 2
where the maximum shear stress is ‘𝜏1 3’
 3D states of stress are not common in machine elements

except for the case of contact stress.
 The 3D Mohr’s circle can be drawn for any state of

plane stress knowing that one of the three principal
stresses is equal to zero.
41
42
43
Static failure theories

44
In practice, machine components are subjected to many
types of loads simultaneously.
Power screw (Torsional moment and axial force):

45
Overhang crank (bending and torsional moment):

46
Bolts of the bracket ( tension and shear ):

47
Elastic failure: excessive elastic deformation, which
makes the machine component unfit to perform its
function.
The design of machine parts subjected to combined loads

should be related to experimentally determined properties
of material under ‘similar’ conditions. However, it is not
possible to conduct such tests for different possible
combinations of loads for getting the mechanical properties.

48
In practice, the mechanical properties
(mainly yield strength, ultimate strength,
elongation etc.) are obtained from a
simple tension test.
In the tension test, the specimen is axially

loaded in tension. It is not subjected to either
bending moment or torsional moment or a
combination of loads.
49
Static failure theories provide relationships between the
strength of machine component subjected to complex
state of stresses with the mechanical properties obtained
in the laboratories under simple loading tests.
With the help of these theories, the data obtained in the

laboratories tests can be used to determine the
dimensions of the component, irrespective of the nature
of stresses induced in the component due to complex
loadings.

50
Many failure theories have been proposed
considering different hypothesis of failures. The main
static theories of elastic failure are as follows:
(i) Maximum normal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca
and Guest’s theory)
(iii) Maximum strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory)
(iv)Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and
Hencky’s theory)
(v) Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant’s
theory)
51
(i) Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNST)
This theory states that the failure of the mechanical

component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
stresses occurs when the maximum principal stress
reaches the yield or ultimate strength of the
material.
If 1, 2 and 3 are the three principal stresses at a point on
the component and 1 > 2 > 3 then according to this
theory, the failure occurs whenever:
1 = Syt OR 1 = Sut
52
Experimental
investigations
suggest that the
maximum
principal stress
theory gives good
predictions for
brittle materials
i.e. it is not
recommended for
ductile materials.
53
Experimental data from tensile tests superposed on three failure
theories (Reproduced from Fig. 7.11, p. 252, in Mechanical Behavior of
Materials by N. E. Dowling, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993)
54
(ii) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSST)
This theory states that the failure of a

mechanical component, subjected to bi-axial
or tri-axial stresses, occurs when the
maximum shear stress at any point in the
component becomes equal to the maximum
shear stress in the standard specimen
achieved in laboratory.

55
Maximum shear stress:
In the laboratory in uniaxial tension

test, the specimen is subjected to
uniaxial stress. The stress in the
specimen of tension test and the
corresponding Mohr’s circle
diagram are shown in the adjacent
figure. From this figure, the
maximum shear stress is:
max = 1/2
At limiting condition, it is written as: max = Syt/2

R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi, 56
Shear diagonal or line
of pure shear is the
locus of all points,
corresponding to pure
shear stress.
The maximum shear

stress theory of failure
is widely used by
designers for predicting
the failure of
components made of
ductile materials.
57
(iii) Maximum Strain Energy Theory (MSET)
It was once thought that the total strain

energy stored in the material was the
cause of yield failure, but experimental
evidence did not bear this out.
The strain energy U in a unit volume

(strain energy density) associated with
any stress is the area under the stress-
Total strain energy per
strain curve up to the point of the unit volume at any
applied stress, as shown in the adjacent point: U= (½) σ 
figure for a unidirectional stress state.

58
Extending this to 3D stress state case yields:
U = (½) (σ1ε1 + σ2 ε2 + σ3ε3 )

59
Total strain energy per unit volume at limiting
point:
U= (½) Syt e
This theory is recommended for ductile materials.

60
(iv) Distortion Energy Theory (DET)
The microscopic yielding mechanism is now

understood to be due to relative sliding of the
materials’ atoms within their lattice structure.
This sliding is caused by shear stress and is
accompanied by distortion of the shape of the
part. The energy stored in the part from this
distortion is an indicator of the magnitude of the
shear stress present.

61
…Distortion Energy Theory (DET)
Components of strain energy
The total strain energy in a loaded machine component can

be considered to consist of two components:
(i) Hydrostatic loading which changes its volume

(ii) Due to distortion that changes its shape.
If we separate the two components, the distortion-energy

portion will give a measure of the shear stress present.

62
This theory states that the failure of the
mechanical component subjected to bi-
axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when
the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume at any point in the component
becomes equal to the strain energy of
distortion per unit volume in the
standard specimen of tension-test when
yielding starts.
63
Let Uh represent the volumetric (hydrostatic)
component and Ud the distortion-energy
component, then
U = Uh + Ud

64
If there is no distortion, then:

65
Distortion energy:

66
The distortion energy associated with yielding in
the tensile test is found as:
Thus, distortion energy per unit volume is:

67
For 2D case:

68
Distortion
Maximum Strain Energy Theory
Energy Theory
69
Von Mises effective stress:
The von Mises effective stress σ' is defined as the
uniaxial tensile stress that would create the same
distortion energy as is created by the actual combination
of applied stresses.

70
The von Mises effective stress σ' for the three-
dimensional case is:
This can also be expressed in terms of the

applied stresses:
For 2D case:
71
(v) Maximum principal strain theory
Maximum principal strain in the complex stress system
must be less than the elastic limit in simple tests.

72
73
Graphical comparison of all static failure theories

74
Failure of Ductile Materials under Static Loading
Problem: Determine the safety factors (at points A and B) for the
bracket rod shown in figure using both the distortion-energy theory
and the maximum shear theory and compare them.
Input data: Yield strength of material= 47 000 psi.
The rod length l = 6 in and arm a = 8 in.
The rod outside diameter d = 1.5 in.
Load F = 1000 lb.

75
76
77
78

79
Maximum shear stress and principal stress at point ‘A’
Shear stress due to transverse loading at point ‘B’

80


81
von Mises effective stress from the principal stresses
(point A)
The safety factor using the distortion-energy theory

can now be found at point A:

82
The safety factor using the maximum shear-stress
theory can be found at point A:
Comparing these two results shows the more

conservative nature of the maximum shear-stress
theory, which gives a slightly lower safety factor.

83
Safety factor at point B using the distortion energy
theory (DET) for pure shear:
Safety factor at point B using maximum shear

stress theory (MSST):
Again, the MSST is more conservative.

84
Thank you for
R. K. Pandey,
Professor,
IIT Delhi, India
85
[Credit: 3 (L-T-P: 3-0-0)]

Material Science,
Prof. R. K. Pandey
1


2
repeated loading.


3


4
What you learn?

case.

5
Text books
book)
this book)
6

7

8

9

10
for this course

11

2-3 problems on
Check Approach).
solving
Loads)
Fatigue Load
etc.)
Attendance policy

13

30% marks.

14
Evaluation scheme

______________________________________
100 Marks
______________________________________

15
Dr. R. K. Pandey
Professor
16
Part-3

17
Lecture slides (of Part-3) include the
following topics:
1. Triaxial stresses (stresses in 3D)

2. Static failure theory
3. Design of screws and fasteners

18
Triaxial stresses
(Stresses in 3D)
Sources:
1. A. P. Boresi and O. M. Sidebottom, Advanced Mechanics of Materials; Wiley, 6th Edition, 2018.
2. J. M. Gere and S. P. Timoshenko, Mechanics of Materials; PWS/CBS Publisher, 2004.
3. R. C. Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials. Pearson, 6th edition, 2007.
19
Design of machine components require
the following aspects:
 The relationships between the external loads

applied to a component and intensity of
internal forces (stresses) acting within the
component.
 The deformation/stability of the component

under the action of the external loads.

20
21
22
Tensors are simply mathematical objects that can be used
to describe physical properties, just like scalars
and vectors. In fact tensors are merely a generalisation of
scalars and vectors; a scalar is a zero rank tensor, and
a vector is a first rank tensor.

23
The areas dAOBC , dAOAC , and
dAOAB are the projection of
area dAABC on the respective
coordinate planes.
24
25
Thus, we can write the stress vector on the oblique
plane P by summing the force vectors acting on the stress
element as shown in the figure:

26
27
Principal normal stresses No shearing stresses on the
principal plane ABC.
Principal stress vector σN

is the only stress vector
acting on the principal
plane and in the direction
of the unit normal vector N
to the principal plane.

28
29
Above three equations are linear homogeneous. Since all three direction
cosines can not be zero ( l2 + m2 + n2 = 1), the system of the linear
homogeneous equations has a nontrivial solution if and only if the
determinant of the coefficients of l , m , and n vanish. Thus, we have

30
Expansion of determinant yields:
This cubic polynomial equation has three roots σ1 , σ2 ,

and σ3 which are the principal normal stresses.

31
32
Finding the direction cosines of the principal stress σ1

33
Octahedral planes and octahedral Stress
In geometry,
an octahedron (plural: octah
edra) is a polyhedron with
eight faces, twelve edges,
and six vertices. The term is
most commonly used to
refer to the
regular octahedron, a
Platonic solid composed of
eight equilateral triangles,
four of which meet at each
vertex.
The octahedral planes are the oblique planes that intersect the
principal axes (1, 2, 3) at equal distance from the origin 0 as
shown in above figure The unit normal vectors to these planes
satisfy the relation: l2+m2+n2=1/3
(?? check 54.730)

34
The octahedral normal stress (σoct ) can be determined
from the following equation:
The principal stresses hold the following relations:
Or
Since
35
The octahedral shearing stress (τoct) can
be determined as follows:

36
37
Example:

38
39
40
The shear stresses are found as:
𝜏12= (𝜎1-𝜎2)/ 2 ,
𝜏23= (𝜎2-𝜎3)/ 2 ,
𝜏13= (𝜎1-𝜎3)/ 2
where the maximum shear stress is ‘𝜏1 3’
 3D states of stress are not common in machine elements

except for the case of contact stress.
 The 3D Mohr’s circle can be drawn for any state of

plane stress knowing that one of the three principal
stresses is equal to zero.
41
42
43

44
In practice, machine components are subjected to many
types of loads simultaneously.
Power screw (Torsional moment and axial force):

45
Overhang crank (bending and torsional moment):

46
Bolts of the bracket ( tension and shear ):

47
Elastic failure: excessive elastic deformation, which
makes the machine component unfit to perform its
function.
The design of machine parts subjected to combined loads

should be related to experimentally determined properties
of material under ‘similar’ conditions. However, it is not
possible to conduct such tests for different possible
combinations of loads for getting the mechanical properties.

48
In practice, the mechanical properties
(mainly yield strength, ultimate strength,
elongation etc.) are obtained from a
simple tension test.
In the tension test, the specimen is axially

loaded in tension. It is not subjected to either
bending moment or torsional moment or a
combination of loads.
49
Static failure theories provide relationships between the
strength of machine component subjected to complex
state of stresses with the mechanical properties obtained
in the laboratories under simple loading tests.
With the help of these theories, the data obtained in the

laboratories tests can be used to determine the
dimensions of the component, irrespective of the nature
of stresses induced in the component due to complex
loadings.

50
Many failure theories have been proposed
considering different hypothesis of failures. The main
static theories of elastic failure are as follows:
(i) Maximum normal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca
and Guest’s theory)
(iii) Maximum strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory)
(iv)Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and
Hencky’s theory)
(v) Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant’s
theory)
51
(i) Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNST)
This theory states that the failure of the mechanical

component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
stresses occurs when the maximum principal stress
reaches the yield or ultimate strength of the
material.
If 1, 2 and 3 are the three principal stresses at a point on
the component and 1 > 2 > 3 then according to this
theory, the failure occurs whenever:
1 = Syt OR 1 = Sut
52
Experimental
investigations
suggest that the
maximum
principal stress
theory gives good
predictions for
brittle materials
i.e. it is not
recommended for
ductile materials.
53
Experimental data from tensile tests superposed on three failure
theories (Reproduced from Fig. 7.11, p. 252, in Mechanical Behavior of
Materials by N. E. Dowling, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993)
54
(ii) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSST)
This theory states that the failure of a

mechanical component, subjected to bi-axial
or tri-axial stresses, occurs when the
maximum shear stress at any point in the
component becomes equal to the maximum
shear stress in the standard specimen
achieved in laboratory.

55
Maximum shear stress:
In the laboratory in uniaxial tension

test, the specimen is subjected to
uniaxial stress. The stress in the
specimen of tension test and the
corresponding Mohr’s circle
diagram are shown in the adjacent
figure. From this figure, the
maximum shear stress is:
max = 1/2
At limiting condition, it is written as: max = Syt/2

R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi, 56
Shear diagonal or line
of pure shear is the
locus of all points,
corresponding to pure
shear stress.
The maximum shear

stress theory of failure
is widely used by
designers for predicting
the failure of
components made of
ductile materials.
57
(iii) Maximum Strain Energy Theory (MSET)
It was once thought that the total strain

energy stored in the material was the
cause of yield failure, but experimental
evidence did not bear this out.
The strain energy U in a unit volume

(strain energy density) associated with
any stress is the area under the stress-
Total strain energy per
strain curve up to the point of the unit volume at any
applied stress, as shown in the adjacent point: U= (½) σ 
figure for a unidirectional stress state.

58
Extending this to 3D stress state case yields:
U = (½) (σ1ε1 + σ2 ε2 + σ3ε3 )

59
Total strain energy per unit volume at limiting
point:
U= (½) Syt e
This theory is recommended for ductile materials.

60
(iv) Distortion Energy Theory (DET)
The microscopic yielding mechanism is now

understood to be due to relative sliding of the
materials’ atoms within their lattice structure.
This sliding is caused by shear stress and is
accompanied by distortion of the shape of the
part. The energy stored in the part from this
distortion is an indicator of the magnitude of the
shear stress present.

61
…Distortion Energy Theory (DET)
Components of strain energy
The total strain energy in a loaded machine component can

be considered to consist of two components:
(i) Hydrostatic loading which changes its volume

(ii) Due to distortion that changes its shape.
If we separate the two components, the distortion-energy

portion will give a measure of the shear stress present.

62
This theory states that the failure of the
mechanical component subjected to bi-
axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when
the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume at any point in the component
becomes equal to the strain energy of
distortion per unit volume in the
standard specimen of tension-test when
yielding starts.
63
Let Uh represent the volumetric (hydrostatic)
component and Ud the distortion-energy
component, then
U = Uh + Ud

64
If there is no distortion, then:

65
Distortion energy:

66
The distortion energy associated with yielding in
the tensile test is found as:
Thus, distortion energy per unit volume is:

67
For 2D case:

68
Distortion
Maximum Strain Energy Theory
Energy Theory
69
Von Mises effective stress:
The von Mises effective stress σ' is defined as the
uniaxial tensile stress that would create the same
distortion energy as is created by the actual combination
of applied stresses.

70
The von Mises effective stress σ' for the three-
dimensional case is:
This can also be expressed in terms of the

applied stresses:
For 2D case:
71
(v) Maximum principal strain theory
Maximum principal strain in the complex stress system
must be less than the elastic limit in simple tests.

72
73
Graphical comparison of all static failure theories

74
Failure of Ductile Materials under Static Loading
Problem: Determine the safety factors (at points A and B) for the
bracket rod shown in figure using both the distortion-energy theory
and the maximum shear theory and compare them.
Input data: Yield strength of material= 47 000 psi.
The rod length l = 6 in and arm a = 8 in.
The rod outside diameter d = 1.5 in.
Load F = 1000 lb.

75
76
77
78

79
Maximum shear stress and principal stress at point ‘A’
Shear stress due to transverse loading at point ‘B’

80


81
von Mises effective stress from the principal stresses
(point A)
The safety factor using the distortion-energy theory

can now be found at point A:

82
The safety factor using the maximum shear-stress
theory can be found at point A:
Comparing these two results shows the more

conservative nature of the maximum shear-stress
theory, which gives a slightly lower safety factor.

83
Safety factor at point B using the distortion energy
theory (DET) for pure shear:
Safety factor at point B using maximum shear

stress theory (MSST):
Again, the MSST is more conservative.

84
Problem: The dimensions of an overhang crank are given in
figure below. The force P acting at the crankpin is 1 kN. The crank is
made of steel (Syt = 400 MPa). Using maximum shear stress theory
of failure, determine the diameter d at the XX section.

85
86
87
Failure of brittle materials (SFT)
Brittle materials fracture rather than yield. Brittle
fracture in tension is considered to be due to the
normal tensile stress alone and thus the maximum
normal-stress theory is applicable in this case.
Brittle fracture in compression is due to some combination

of normal compressive stress and shear stress and requires
a different theory of failure.
Thus, combination of theories is needed for addressing

failure in tension and compression of a brittle material.

88
Even and Uneven materials
Even materials: have compressive strengths
equal to their tensile strengths and so are
called even materials.
Uneven materials: have compressive strengths

much greater than their tensile strengths.
These are called uneven materials.

89
Brittle materials’ low tensile strengths are due to
the presence of microscopic flaws and when these
materials are subjected to tensile load, these flaws
serve as nuclei for crack formation.
However, when brittle materials are subjected to

compressive load, these flaws are pressed
together, thus, increase in the resistance to
slippage from the shear stress.
Grey cast iron typically has compressive strength

3 to 4 times higher than its tensile strength.
90
Another characteristic of few cast iron brittle
materials is that their shear strength can be greater
than their tensile strength, falling between their
compressive and tensile values. (Suc > Sys > Sut)
This is quite different than ductile materials, in

which the shear strength is about one-half
(Sys=0.5Syt and Sys=Syt/3) the tensile strength. The
effects of the stronger shear strength in cast
materials can be seen in their failure
characteristics in the tension and torsion tests.

91
Following figure shows a steel specimen (ductile)
under tensile loading followed by its failure view
and failure plane is at 45° to the applied tensile
load/stress. This indicates a shear failure, which is
true from the distortion-energy theory (DET).

92
Following figure shows a brittle cast-iron specimen
subjected to tensile loading followed by failure view.
Failure plane is normal to the applied tensile load. The
Mohr’s circle for this stress state is also shown below.
In spite of different failure modes Mohr’s circles are

same.

93
Mohr's circles for both compression and tensile tests showing the
failure envelopes for (a) Even and (b) Uneven Materials

94
The lines tangent to these circles constitute failure lines for
all combinations of applied stresses between the two circles.
The area enclosed by the circles and the failure lines
represents a safe zone. In the case of the even material, the
failure lines are independent of the normal stress and are
defined by the maximum shear strength of the material.

95
For the uneven materials, the failure lines are
function of both the normal stress (σ) and the shear
stress (τ).
For the compressive regime, as the normal

compressive stress component becomes
increasingly negative (i.e., more compression), the
material’s resistance to shear stress increases. This
is consistent with the idea expressed above that
compression makes it more difficult for shear
slippage to occur along fault lines within the
material’s internal flaws.
96
The slope (μ) and the intercept (τi) can be found from
geometry using only the radii of the Mohr’s circles
from the tensile and compression tests.

97
The inter dependence between shear and normal stress
shown in previous figure is confirmed by experiment
too for the cases where the compressive stress is
dominant.
However, experiments also show that, in tensile-stress-

dominated situations with uneven, brittle materials,
failure is due to tensile stress alone. The shear stress
appears not to be a factor in uneven materials if the
principal stress with the largest absolute value is tensile.
Coulomb-Mohr theory
& Modified-Mohr theory
98
Coulomb-Mohr theory
The observations explained in previous slides lead to the
Coulomb-Mohr theory of brittle failure, which is an
adaptation of the maximum normal-stress theory.

99
Biaxial Fracture Data of Gray Cast Iron Compared to Various Failure Criteria (From
Fig 7.13, p. 255, in Mechanical Behavior of Materials by N. E. Dowling, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993. Data from R. C. Grassi and I. Cornet, "Fracture of
Gray Cast Iron Tubes under Biaxial Stresses," J. App. Mech, v. 16, p.178, 1949)

100
Figure shows some grey cast-iron
experimental test data superposed
on the theoretical failure envelopes.
Note that the failures in the first
quadrant fit the maximum normal-
stress theory line (which is
coincident with the other theories).
The failures in the fourth quadrant
fall inside the maximum normal-
stress line (indicating its
unsuitability) and also fall well
outside the Coulomb-Mohr line
(indicating its conservative nature).
This observation leads to a
modification of the Coulomb-Mohr
theory to make it better fit the
observed data.
101
Modified-Mohr theory
This theory is preferred failure theory for uneven,
brittle materials in static loading condition.

102
Coulomb-Mohr theory
Modified-Mohr theory

103
Problem:

104
105
Preferred sizes (Standardization)
During the process of design, the size of the component
is evaluated. However certain sizes are preferred because
processing of the component also depends on the size of
the raw stock available. For this purpose the size of the
component evaluated should be changed based on the
nearest preferred size, which is safe. For some of the
components such as I, L, T, C sections or pipes or
springs, rolling bearings etc. standards are available
giving details of sizes of such items or components
available. In such cases the standards should be followed
otherwise the preferred size listed in following table
should be used.
106
In 1870, French army engineer Colonel
Charles Renard proposed a set of preferred numbers. His
system was adopted in 1952 as international
standard (ISO).
Renard's system divides the interval from 1 to 10 into 5,

10, 20, or 40 steps, leading to the R5, R10, R20 and R40
scales, respectively.
The factor between two consecutive numbers in a Renard

series is approximately constant (before rounding), namely
the 5th, 10th, 20th, or 40th root of 10 (approximately 1.58,
1.26, 1.12, and 1.06, respectively), which leads to
a geometric sequence.
107
Preferred sizes and Renard (R-Series) numbers (when a choice can
be made, use one of these sizes, however not all parts or items are
available in all the sizes shown in Table

108
Screws and Fasteners
The design of “nuts and

bolts” might seem to be one
of least interesting aspects,
but in fact it is one of the
most important.
The success or failure of a

design may be around to In need of a nail the shoe is lost;
proper selection and use of for need of a shoe the horse is
fasteners. lost; And, for need of a horse the
rider is lost.
109
Thousands of different designs of fasteners are offered
by vendors, and thousands to millions of fasteners are
used in a single complex assembly such as an automobile
or aircraft.
Screws are used both to hold things together as fasteners

and to move loads as so called power screws or lead
screws. We will investigate both of these applications.
Screws as fasteners can be arranged to take tensile loads,
shear loads, or both.
110
Threaded Fasteners
•Threaded fasteners are most commonly used for
removable or temporary joints. They come in a
variety of sizes and shapes. Though they have a
circular section they might be with or without
Heads and a large variety of Heads are available
•An aircraft can have more than a million fasteners
•Design and selection of conventional fasteners
such as Bolts, Nuts and Screws will be considered
•Normally the fasteners are required to take up
tensile loads and/or shear loads
Bolt, Washers and Nut
k = 0.7 d for mm bolts
Across corners
k = (7/8) d for inch bolts e = 1.5 d
e
d
Across Flats
The most important is obviously the

size. The overall diameter is d. The
Notice shape length is l, indicated without the
of the threads head.
http://www.landroverclub.net/C
• Notice these bolts are threaded lub/HTML/Schrauben1.htm
for the whole length which need
not be always so
http://www.arrid.com.au/?act
=racking_parts
Bolt - Terminology
Bolt is a threaded cylinder with a head.
Thread length
Hexagonal headed Length

Width Head This is a bolt not
bolt and nut across thickness threaded for the
flat
Dimensions of bolt’s head are whole length
standardized and based on the diameter.

Nuts and Bolt Head Markings
Steel Nuts
• Notice bolts not threaded for
http://www.keystonethreaded. the whole length but partially.
com/acme.htm
• Also notice the marking on the
bolt heads.
http://www.fortressfasteners.co.nz/Desktop
Default.aspx?pageid=161
Thread Terminology
External A thread cut on the outside of

thread a cylindrical body.
Internal A thread cut on the inside of

thread
a cylindrical body.
External thread
Internal thread
Stud
Studs used on a
coupling to connect
two shafts.
Studs on automobile wheel
Bolted joints in
an automobile
wheel. Here the
outer four
fasteners are
studs with nuts
that secure the
wheel. The
central nut (with
locking cover
and pin) secures
the wheel
bearing to the
spindle.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Car_hub_cotter_pin.jpg
Washers
• Metallic washers
Split Lock Washers
Lock Washers - to prevent

loosening under severe
vibration, resistance to
inadvertent loosening is
usually effected by a lock
washer four varieties are
shown.
From www.boltdepot.com
LH-RH Screw Bolts in Assembly
http://www.getscrews.com/
Left Hand and Right Hand
threads are both shown.
http://www.boltscience.co.uk/
pages/vibloose.htm
Turnbuckle use RH and LH
thread at each end to double
displacement.
Fastener Types
Only lower clamped Section through

member threaded bolted assembly
• Common types of fasteners fastening two
(a) Bolt & Nut members with
(b) Screw and washers-one
(c) Stud below the Bolt
and other at Nut.
Terminology
Major diameter d, Minor diameter (root diameter) dr, Mean
diameter dm = (d + dr)/2 (not shown) and pitch diameter dp
Lead L, distance the nut moves for one turn rotation
Thread angle 2a and Helix angle or Lead angle l
Pitch p
www1.coe.neu.edu.ppt
Thread Standards and Definitions
Terminology of screw threads

Thread Definitions
The distance between adjacent
Pitch, p
thread forms measured parallel to
the thread axis. The pitch in U.S.
units is the reciprocal of the
number of thread forms per inch N.
Major diameter, d The largest diameter of a screw
thread.
Minor or root The smallest diameter of a screw
diameter dr thread.
Lead, L The distance the nut moves

parallel to the screw axis when the
nut is given one turn. For a single
thread, as in Figure, the lead is the
same as the pitch.
Threads -Norton
Tensile stress (From book by Norton)
F F
2
 dpdr 
F At    
t  4 2 2 
At
For At refer Tables 14-1 and 14-2
Thread standards
Screw Thread Standards
Sir Joseph Whitworth developed in mid 1800s the first screw thread
standard for a fastening thread which bears his name. Later, the Unified
Screw Thread standard came to be developed and was adopted by
Britain, Canada and the United States. This is the inch thread which is
in wide use now-a-days and known as Unified National (UN) thread.
This was copied conceptually by the International Standards

Organization when the ISO fastener Metric threads and the metric
Trapezoidal power screw threads were standardized. Most screw thread
standards are structured as functions of major diameter and pitch. All
thread features and limits of size are determined by the thread major
diameter and thread pitch. For good fastener joints, standards have to
be to be adhered by designers and manufacturers.
www.roton.com
Threaded fasteners (cont.)
A thread 'system' is a ‘standard’ set of thread
proportions to suit different screw sizes and defines
the thread geometry.
The Unified National Standard (UNS) and British

Standard Pipe (BSP) are the commonly used ‘inch’
threads. The ISO Metric thread system is the ‘mm’
standard thread system.
Note: that one cannot convert from Inch standard
threads to the Metric standard threads by multiplying
by 25.4 or vice versa.
ISO (Metric) thread
P/8
Internal
60o
thread
P/4
External
thread
Pitch, P
Center line of thread assembly
Threads assemble if and only if both (internal & external)

thread have an equal nominal size (or diameter) and pitch.
Thread Major and Minor Diameters (External Threads)
d is the Nominal Major Diameter at crest of thread
dr is the Minimum Minor Diameter at root of thread
The threads are truncated at crest and root to avoid sharp corners
dr d
Profile of fastener threads
To avoid sharp edges in the manufacture of the fastener threads the
roots and crest can be flattened, otherwise it may be rounded. At Pitch
diameter the width in the thread material and width of empty space are
same.
p
Crest
600
a
H p/8
Height
Pitch
Diameter
p/4
Root
d dr dp
Major
Diameter
Minor Pitch External Threads
Diameter Diameter
Inch threads
• Coarse Thread Series, UNC: The coarse thread series UNC is the most
commonly used thread system. It is used in the majority of screws, bolts, and
nuts. It is used for producing threads in low strength materials such as cast iron,
mild steel, and softer copper alloys, aluminum etc. The coarse thread is also used
for rapid assembly or disassembly. As the name suggests, it is coarser and
cheaper.
• Fine Thread Series, UNF: This is used for applications that require a higher
tensile strength than the coarse thread series and where a thin wall is required. It
is also required where large vibration exists. As the name suggests, it is fine and
costlier.
• Extra-Fine Thread Series, UNEF: This is used when the length of engagement
is smaller than the fine-thread series. It is also applicable in all applications where
the fine thread can be used. It is the costliest.
• Unified Standard Series and Selected Combinations, Unified Standard
Series: The preferred threads to be used are either the coarse thread series or the
fine thread series described above. The fit of screws threads (class 2A/2B and
class 3A/3B), as well as the allowances, max and min. major/minor, pitch
diameters are described in the table provided in the Standards and partial details
are available in the Table given in the book, for the various threads, including
UNC, UNF, UNEF, series
Representation of inch threads
•Fine Thread UNF, is more resistant to

loosening, because of its comparatively
smaller helix angle. They are therefore used
when vibration is present.
•Example:1in-12 UNF-A, is an 1 inch Major

or crest diameter thread with pitch of 12
threads per inch (t.p.i) United National Fine
external thread (A for External thread and B
for Internal Inch threads)
Nomenclature
• Examples of the nomenclature for specifying a threaded fastener are
given below for Unified National Inch and ISO Metric
specifications
1. Unified National:
Threads per inch
Type of thread (A- External, B – Internal)
2 - 12 UNC - A
Classification: UNC - Unified National Coarse
Major Diameter (< 1/4" are numbered, #12 = 0.2160",
#0 = 0.060''; see Table in the text book)
2. Metric:
Nominal size (diameter in mm)
Pitch (mm)
M 12 x 1.75
Metric
Summary of Thread Classifications
1. Unified National Standard 2. ISO (Metric)

UNC – Coarse Coarse
UNF – Fine Fine
UNEF – Extra Fine
Fine d =20 mm
d =0.75” ¾-16 UNF –A Metric M 20 x 2.5
16 threads/in A: External p=2.5
Note: Always the Major diameter is stated in specifications

for external threads and therefore for internal threads
of nut it will be the maximum internal diameter
Thread Classifications
Unified National Standard ISO (Metric)
UNC –coarse coarse
UNF –fine fine
UNEF –extra fine
fine d =12mm
d=0.25” metric
¼-20 UNF – A M12 x 1.75
external
20 threads/in. threads p=1.75 mm/thread
**see Tables 14-1 and 14-2 for standard sizes**
Note: Always the Major diameter is stated in specifications
for external threads and therefore for internal threads
of nut it will be the maximum internal diameter
Bolt and nut assembly
Washer Bolt Washer (integral with
(separate member) under-face of bolt)
/2 /2 Clamped
members
Notice the
unequal
External
Load P clearance
between
bolt and
holes in
/2 /2 clamped
members
Washer Nut Washer (integral
(separate member) with under-face of nut)
External force on the bolt and members
Bolted joint is clamping the members & resisting external force P. For
analysis, force P is assumed as acting at points symmetrical on both
sides of the bolt, which is a reasonable assumption. External force P
tries to separate the joint. The bolt is in tension and the clamped
members are in compression.
P /2 P /2
(Members to be joined)
lbolt = Bolt length
ls lg ls= Unthreaded shank length
lbolt lt
lthd = Threaded length of bolt
lt = Stressed threaded length
l thd l = lg = Grip
Norton uses lb instead of lg

P /2 P /2
www1.coe.neu.edu.ppt
Grip lg not shown explicitly (Norton uses lb instead of lg)
Bolted joint is clamping the members & resisting external force P. For analysis,
force P is assumed as acting at points symmetrical on both sides of the bolt,
which is a reasonable assumption. External force P tries to separate the joint. The
bolt is in tension and the clamped members are in compression.
Joint separation m
The failure of
fastener joint due to
separation of
members is
indicated in the
adjoining figure.
m
Bolt and members as springs
• In the adjoining figure, the

bolt ( b ) and the joint or
clamped members (m) are
visualized as springs with
spring constants i.e. spring
stiffness kb and km
respectively.
m
• Spring stiffness is ratio of
load/displacement.
Clamped members and bolt as springs
To understand the behavior of a bolted joint, imagine the members being
represented as large spring compressed (clamped) by group of smaller
springs (bolts) (Fig. a). On tightening, springs distort somewhat as shown
in Fig. (b) in an exaggerated fashion.
Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
Km is a combination of
Km1 and Km1
Why nut & bolt assembly?
The nut and bolt assembly looks pretty simple and its
complexity is often underestimated.
A bolt has to be fully tightened for it to perform its function

properly, unlike a loose bolt.
A fully tightened bolted joint can sustain steady or static

load or even varying load for millions of load cycles without
problems. On the other hand, a joint consisting of
untightened bolts will frequently fail within a few cycles of
loading. This is because a properly or fully tightened bolt
carries only a small proportion of any external load applied
and the clamped members take the major proportion of the
external load.
The next few slides explain why this occurs.

Bolted joint spring analogy
Tightening of nut – Preloading (cont.)
• When members or parts are clamped by tightening nut on
the bolt, material clamped is compressed and bolt is under
tension for equilibrium i.e. bolt is extended and within
elastic limit bolt will be safe.
• When external load acts on this bolted joint to the extent

of P/2 on both sides of the bolt, it tries to separate the
joint and the bolt & nut resist this.
• Analogue of spring can be used – material compressed –

say like a hard spring with spring constant km . The bolt
also extends like a spring with a spring constant kb .
• Due to preloading by tightening the nut on the bolt, the

clamped members are compressed.
Summary of preload effect
• It is important to note that preload (caused by initial

tightening of nut on the bolt) is the same in the bolt
and the clamped members. This is designated as Fi
• It has to be further noted that preload Fi causes tensile
loading and hence extension of the bolt length, while
it compresses the clamped members.
• Though the preload is same in the bolt and clamped
members i.e. Fi , the extension of the bolt (db) is more
than the compression (dm)of the clamped members
because the bolt stiffness (kb) is much less compared
to the stiffness (km) of clamped members. Hence the
bolt stretches more.
Screw Jack
Schematic of Power Screw
A schematic of Power Screw shows the Nut, Screw
Collar friction & thread friction
Here the handle rotates P
the Nut and the screw
moves axially. Collar friction
is therefore at the bearing.
Screw & Nut
thread friction
Handle
Nut
Collar friction
at Bearing
Base
Screw
Types of Power Screws
Power Screws are classified by the cross sectional shape of their

threads. Two of them commonly used and considered in our
designs are the following.
• Square Thread
• ACME Thread
Square Thread Form
Square thread form is used for power/force transmission i.e. linear
jacks, clamps.
The friction is low and there is no radial force imposed on the

mating nut. The square thread is the most efficient conventional
power screw form. It is the most difficult form to machine. It is
not very compatible for using split nuts-as used on certain machine
tool system for withdrawing the tool carriers.
Acme Thread Form
•ACME thread series were developed in 1895, as

an alternative to square threads for use in
positioning and power transmission. Acme
screws are widely used in power screws for
linear motion. These are inch threads.
•The equivalent metric threads which have
nearly similar shape are called Trapezoidal
thread power screws.
Acme Thread Form
 Used for power transmission i.e. lathe lead screws.
 Easier to manufacture compared to a square thread.
 It has superior root strength characteristics compared to
a square thread.
 The acme screw thread has been developed for machine
tool drives. They are easy to machine and can be used
with split nuts. The thread has an optimum efficiency of
about 70% for helix angles between 250 and 650. Outside
this range the efficiency falls away.
Square and ACME Thread forms
1
Buttress Threads
 A strong low friction thread.
However it is designed only to take large loads in on
direction.
For a given size this is the strongest of the thread forms.
When taking heavy loads on the near vertical thread face
this thread is almost as efficient as a square thread form.
Power Screw Types – a Comparison
• Square
• strongest
• no radial load
• hard to manufacture 900 angle; hence slight
angle of about 70 from vertical formed when
manufactured
• Acme
• 29° included angle
• easier to manufacture
• common choice for loading in both directions
• Buttress
• great strength
• only unidirectional loading
Thread Backlash
Nut and Screw threads in mesh to show Backlash.
Zero Backlash with these types of Power Screws is
not possible. With Ball Screws it is possible. With
usage wear causes increase in Backlash.
Helix Unwound
• A screw is an inclined plane that winds around itself and has ridges
and is not smooth like a nail. Some screws are used to lower and
raise things while others are used to hold objects together. A screw is
like the ramp -the width of the thread is like the angle of an inclined
plane. The wider the thread of a screw, the harder it is to turn it.
• The distance between the threads depends on the slope of the
inclined plane - the steeper the slope, the wider the thread and
screws with less distance between the threads are easier to turn.
• The screw is an inclined plane wound around a central cylinder.
Power Screw Threads
Power Screw
The Helix
A helix is the locus
of a point as it
moves on the
surface of a
cylinder so that it
rotates at a
constant rate
around the surface
of the cylinder,
while also
progressing in the
direction of the axis at
a constant rate
Opening out a Helix
The development of one turn of a helix

appears as a right angled triangle
Concept of ‘Point Load’
Vertical Power Screw Up
Down
Horizontal Power Screw
Here, ‘Down’ means: to the
Left for the horizontal power
screw
Down
Here, ‘Up’ means: to the Right

for the horizontal power screw
Up
Model for Load Action
• The load is carried by the threads of the power Screw and the Nut within which it
moves. The load is distributed over the width of the screw thread as shown in the
figure. Doing an analysis based on such a distribution will be mathematically
complicated. Designers always use as simple a model that serves the purpose and
it is found here that assuming a point load acting at what is known as pitch
diameter serves the purpose. However one should be able to obtain the pitch
diameter and if not the analysis is done assuming the point load to act at mean
diameter and serves the purpose equally well. Books use any of these diameters.
P
F L = Lead
l
dp
Load Analysis following Norton
What “simple machine” does a power screw utilize?
y P
x f
F
N L
l
 dp
LIFTING
tan l 
L 
Pd p  d p  L 
TSu 
d p 
2 d p  L 
More Completely…
LIFTING
P 
 d p  L 
Tu  TSu  Tcollar  d p  c dc 
2  
d p  L 
LOWERING
P 
 d p  L  
 d p  c dc 
TTd
d 2  
d p  L  
y P y P
x f x F
F f
N L N L
l l
 dp  dp
LIFTING LOWERING
For Acme Threads as per Norton
Lifting
P 
 d p  L cos a  
2  
d p cos a  L  
Lowering
P 
 d p  L cos a  
Td   d p  c dc 
Td
2  
d p cos a  L  
Self-Locking / Back Driving as per Norton
self-locking – screw cannot turn from load P
back-driving – screw can be turned from load P
P 
 d p  L cos a  
Td  d p  c dc 
Td
2  
d p cos a  L  
For self-locking: Numerator should be +ve

L
 cos a or   tan l cos a
d p
Would square or Acme of same dimensions
lock first?
Efficiency as per Norton
Wout PL cos a   tan l
e  
Win 2T cos a   cot l
derive with frictionless

-for lifting- higher efficiency for lowering
torque/torque)
(also
Buckling
Column Loading
Screws which are loaded in compression may be so slender
(long in relation to diameter) that they can fail by elastic
instability (buckling) much before they reach their static load
limit or compressive strength. A screw system design which
undergoes a compressive load must be checked for safe
column loading.
Buckling equations are
provided in the book (see
Index) and then check for
buckling failure can be
done as a final check
on the design.
Power Screw and Nut materials
• Power Screws are simple and inexpensive for use in many different
applications such as machine tools, clamping mechanisms, farm machinery,
medical equipment, aerospace and other mechanisms of many industries.
Power screws are typically made from carbon steel, alloy steel, or stainless
steel and they are usually used with bronze, plastic, or steel mating nuts.
Bronze and plastic nuts are popular for higher duty applications and they
provide low coefficients of friction for minimizing drive torques. Steel nuts are
used for only limited duty where relative speeds are low or manual driven
situations (so as to avoid galling of like materials). Roton Engineering Bulletin
No. 971 gives information about using nuts with Acme threads.
www.roton.com
Right Hand and Left Hand Threads
• Hand of the Thread
The hand of the thread can be easily determined by visual inspection.
Simply compare the screw threads with the right hand and left hand
threads illustrated below. Most threads are right hand and right hand
is assumed if no left hand designation is specified. Left hand threads
are common on manual drives where clockwise handle rotation
raises, tightens, extends, or creates motion away from the operator.
On fine threads, it may be necessary to lay a small wire in the thread
grooves to determine hand. Matching the angle of lie of the wire with
the illustrations will indicate the hand of thread.
www.roton.com
Major, Minor and Pitch Diameters
• Major Diameter: the major diameter can be measured with a
micrometer, caliper or steel rule. Major diameters are generally the
first numbers found in thread designations.
• Minor Diameter: the minor diameter is equal to major diameter
minus twice the depth of thread.
• Pitch Diameter: the pitch diameter is the diameter at which the
thread tooth and the thread space are equal. To accurately measure
the pitch diameter might not be easy and requires what is called the
optical comparator or thread wires.
www.roton.com
Exercise
A double-threaded power screw, with

ISO metric trapezoidal threads, is
used to raise a load of 300 kN. The
nominal diameter is 100 mm and the
pitch is 12 mm. The coefficient of
friction at screw threads is 0.5.
Neglecting collar friction, calculate:
Ball Screw
Mechanics of Power Screws
y P
x F
f A square-threaded
L
l N
power screw with
 dp
single thread
dp Lowering having a pitch
diameter dp, a pitch
p, a lead angle l,
F
and a helix angle y
P
is loaded by the
axial compressive
Pitch force F.
y P
Nut x F
f
l N L
 dp
P/2 P/2
Lifting
For Lifting load-Resolution of Forces
y P
x
F
N L
l
 dp
y N Lifting
x
F L
l P
 dp
Lifting
Σ FH = F – N sinλ – f cosλ
Σ FV = P + f sinλ – N cosλ
For Lowering load-Resolution of Forces
y P
x F
f L
N
l
 dp
y N Lowering
x F
L
l P
 dp
Lowering
Σ FH = – F – N sinλ + f cosλ
Σ FV = – P + f sinλ + N cosλ
ACME Threads
P P/2 P/2
P
P/2 P/2
Collar Torque
When screw is loaded axially, a thrust or

collar
bearing must be employed between the
rotating and
stationary members μc order
Pin dc to carry
Tc =
the axial 2
component. Figure is a typical thrust
collar
which the load is to be concentrated.
179
180
181
182
Summary of preload effect
• It is important to note that preload (caused by initial

tightening of nut on the bolt) is the same in the bolt
and the clamped members. This is designated as Fi
• It has to be further noted that preload Fi causes tensile
loading and hence extension of the bolt length, while
it compresses the clamped members.
• Though the preload is same in the bolt and clamped
members i.e. Fi , the extension of the bolt (db) is more
than the compression (dm)of the clamped members
because the bolt stiffness (kb) is much less compared
to the stiffness (km) of clamped members. Hence the
bolt stretches more.
Deflection due to External Force or Load
• Deflection Dl (extension or compression) of a rod (under tensile or
compressive stress) of original length l is strain x original length l.
load, A isxcross
Where, P is external force orForce(P) l Force (P)areaForce (P)
sectional
Hence
taking up the force or load and l Ais length =
x E of bolt
=
A xor(Ethickness
/l) k
of clamped members as the case might be. Hence for db >
dm (i.e. bolt deflectionD
deflection l = is more than clamped member in
tensile
= d
compression), the value of kb < km i.e. bolt stiffness is less than
combined stiffness of clamped members.
• When external load of force P is applied to the bolted connection,
the tensile deflection of both the bolt and the clamped members is D
d. For bolt the tensile deflection
adds up and for the clamped members the tensile deflection
decreases the compression.
Load or Force on Bolt and Members (cont.)
• If relative stiffness of material and bolt as explained earlier with
reference to the deflection figures (given in text book) is such that
km > kb then the clamped material will resist a major portion of the
external load or force P i.e., portion of P taken by members (Pm)
and portion of P taken by bolt (Pb) is such that:
Pm > Pb
• This is what is desired in practice. The implication of this is that: if
the bolt does not fail when preloaded during the initial tightening of
the nut on the bolt then it probably won’t fail in service
• However if external load or force P is large enough to cause the load
or force taken up or resisted by the clamped members Pm to exceed
the initial preload Fi (when the nut is initially tightened on the bolt),
then the separation of the clamped members will take place and all
the load or force will come on the bolt causing bolt failure.
Load or Force on Bolt and Members (cont.)
See book and check the derivation.
• Pb = CP where C = kb
+ kb check)
Similarly one can obtain Pm = (1- C )kPm (students
• The total force on bolt due to preloading Fi and the external force P is given by:
• Fb = Fi + Pb = Fi + CP
• Similarly the total force on clamped members due to preloading Fi and external
force P is:
• Fm = Fi - Pm = Fi - (1- C )P
•Note that C is to be found and hence stiffness
of both the bolt and clamped members
Standard Bolt Sizes
• Made to order bolts are few. Usually mass produced bolts are used
as these are economical, rather than made to order bolts. Mass
produced bolts have uniform strength. Length of standard bolts are
as follows. Bolts shorter than standard length are threaded as close
to the bolt head as possible.
2d + 6 mm; l ≤ 150 mm
2d +12 mm; 150 < l ≤ 200 mm Metric
lthd = 2d +25 mm; l > 200 mm bolts
2d + 0.25 in; l ≤ 6 in
2d + 0.50 in; l > 6 in Inch
lthd = bolts
lthd = threaded length l = total bolt length
d = nominal bolt diameter i.e. the crest diameter
Bolt Threaded & Unthreaded Lengths
• Bolt threaded and unthreaded lengths to find Bolt stiffness kb
If no other
Unthreaded Shank dia. ds data
shank available,
ls
ls
ds = d
lg=lb=Gr Major
l=lboltip diameter
lt dt lt
lthd
Norton uses lb instead of lg

Using thread table - for At ,
Example
A bolted joint is to have a grip
consisting of two 14-mm steel plates
and one plain washer to fit under the
head of the
M14  2 hex-head bolt, 50 mm long.
(a) What is the length of the thread
portion lthd for this diameter metric
course-pitch series bolt?
Solution
(a) lthd = 2d + 6 = 2(14) + 6 = 34 mm Ans.
(b) Check on the web or book for standard washer thicknesses,
(it may be 3 mm to a washer thickness of 3.5 mm). Thus, the
grip is (if only one washer below bolt head is assumed):
lg = lb =14 + 14 + 3.5 = 31.5 mm Ans.
(c) Height of nut is equal to ‘d’ for mm bolts d
i.e., H = 14 mm.
d
(d) lg + H = 31.5 + 14 = 45.5 mm
0.6 d for metric bolts
This would be rounded to extend 3 to 6 mm beyond the nut & let
us assume 6 mm, hence l = lbolt = 51.5 mm.
The bolt is long enough. Ans.
(e) ls = l - lthd = 51.5 – 34 = 17.5 mm Ans.
lt = lg - ls = 45.5 – 17.5 = 28 Ans.
Bolt Stiffness
The stiffness of an elastic component which is subjected uniformly
to tension or compression is:
k = Force/δ = AE/L
A bolt may be reckoned as two elements in series, each with a
different but constant cross-sectional area - the shank cross
sectional As , and the exposed thread whose area is the stress area
At
Some suggest including half the head and nut thicknesses
respectively, to allow for local deformation. The stiffness of short
bolts is less predictable than that of long bolts.
As
t
Top and bottom
Frusta Members not
symmetrically
placed
of t w
equal
l
1Thickness
1
2 1 2 l /2 m
l3 lm
(l3=lm /2 - l1)
lb=lm+2tw l2
lm/2
Neglect tw if 3 3
data unavailable
Stiffness of tw
Thickness of
three regions members not same
1 , 2 & 3 but Top and bottom
evaluated, as Frusta always
1 ≠ 3 symmetrical
Stiffness of members
Stiffness of the members d2
is evaluated by finding f0 d
stiffness separately
of the two annular
regions 1 & 2 1 Space 1 2 l1 lm/2
2 of the upper occup
frusta (with l3
l
region 1 in top d 3 ied by m
member and region l3 = (lm /2-l1)
bolt l2 lm/2
2 in bottom member), 3 3
and the annular region
3 of the lower
(situated frusta in the lower member), as the top clamped
completely
member (of thickness l1 < lm /2) and bottom clamped member
[of thickness (l2 + l3)> lm /2] are of unequal thicknesses. The
frustums however will be of equal heights = lm /2, where
lb =lm+2tw is the combined thickness of the members
lm+ twice thickness of washers tw (neglect if tw data unavailable)
Cone Frustum
• The frustum of the cones represent the stressed region within
clamped members when an external tensile load is applied to
separate the members, which is resisted by the bolt.
• The frustum of the cones are always symmetrical i.e., exactly of
same size at top and bottom irrespective of:
1. Whether the members are equal or unequal thickness.
2. Whether two or more members are clamped.
Exercise 1
• An example is considered to find equivalent stiffness km of the
members. Assume equal thickness of steel clamped members as in
figures. During calculation the designer found bolt diameter d =14
mm (Coarse threads)
is suitable. d
2= 1.5
d
d2=1.5 d
1 1 27.5
27.5 300
dd
Steel 300 55
Steel
2 2
27.5
17
d3
d3
(c)
d is Major diameter of bolt
Hamrock et al.
Exercise 2
earlier problem but with clamped members of different materials
as in figure. During calculation the designer has found that a bolt
with Major diameter d =14 mm is suitable.
d2d=1.5
d2 =1.5 d
d
27.5 300
dd 1 1 27.5
Aluminum 300
Steel 55
17
27.5
2 2
d3
d3
d is Major diameter of bolt (c)
Hamrock et al.
Exercise 3
problem considered earlier, assuming unequal thickness of members
with different clamped materials as shown.
d2 =1.5 d
d
Aluminum
Steel
17
d3
d is Major diameter of bolt
Hamrock et al.
Cone Frustums Falling
Outside Material
• A bolted joint assembly, where the
material is such that the cone
frustums are falling outside the
materials, hence one has to visualize
the area of the frustum within the
material, or even could approximate
the area as a cylinder of size D as seen
in the figure.
d2
Bolt Design – Static Loading
• Total force or load on the bolt under static loading is due to Preload Fi and
external force on the bolt assembly P . The effect of preload Fi is same on
both bolt and clamped members, while external force P is partially taken by
bolt and partially by the clamped members. The external force taken up by the
bolt is Pb= CP . Hence total load Fb is:
• F b = F i + Pb = F i + C P
Therefore stress developed in the bolt b is:
• Fb Fi P
At At At
• The design equation based on the failure criteria for
static loading is: stress in bolt b ≤ Sp proof strength
b = or b = + C
Proof Stress Sp
It is difficult to determine accurately the yield strength of a full size
threaded connector ( as opposed to a cylindrical test piece ) because of
the different strain rates of shank, and thread. For this reason it is
better that the proof stress rather than the yield stress is used as a
criterion for failure assessment. The proof stress Sp is the largest stress
which does not lead to any permanent set. The proof load of a screw
made from a particular material is the maximum load the screw can
withstand without permanent deformation, and is given by the
product of stress area and proof stress.
The stress area for a threaded fastener can be obtained from the
Table for standard threads both inch and metric or it can be calculated
from the formula. The proof stress can be read off from the Bolt Table
for standard threads both inch and metric.
Bolt Strength
 Bolt strength is
specified by:
1.minimum proof
 Thestrength Sp is the
proof load
2.or minimum
maximum load
proofthat
(force) load Fp,
a bolt
can
3.andwithstand
minimum
without acquiring a
tensile
permanent
strength,set.
Sut
Bolt Strength
 The SAE
specifications are
given in Table 14-6
bolt grades are
If Sp not available
numbered
use:
according to
Bolt Design – Static Loading (cont.)
• The design equation for bolt design as the bolt is subjected uni-axial tension is:
• b ≤ Sp and by adopting equality sign b = Sp. Hence, substituting for b
from previous slide yields the following equation:
Sp Fi P x NS x NG x NR x NFA x NE x ND x NEI
NM At At
This is the design equation to design a bolt to be safe
under tensile loading and extension due to Fi and P .
Many books
= are+notCgiving this equation nor explaining
how to design bolts against tensile failure due to Fi
and P . Since Sp is used instead of Sy , take NM = 1.0
since Sy is already downgraded for safety to Sp
Shigley’s book gives the Design Equation stated in the

previous slide but does not include Factors of safety.
Norton’ book states the Equation in compact form

without Design Factors of Safety and without the
procedure to Design diameter of bolt.
Note that the Preload should not be multiplied by Factors

of Safety as there should not be any ignorance with regard
to Preload (by tightening the nut) and it has to be applied
properly as will be described later. So no safety factors used
• Difficulty in using the Design Equation stated earlier is that there are three
unknown quantities in the equation, namely: Fi, C and diameter of the bolt
to be designed. Also selection of Sp value is not possible as Sp depends on the
Grade No. of bolt (both SAE or Metric bolts). Hence, unless bolt diameter is
known, Fi and C cannot be found and Sp cannot be selected.
• On the other hand if Fi and C are not known then the diameter of the bolt
cannot be found. Books are also not explaining the procedure. The following
procedure as explained in next slide is being suggested.
Bolt Design Steps for Static Loading
• In first iteration assume C=0.2. The justification for this is the experimental
result quoted in Shigley’s book (next slide) which shows that bolt takes a
smaller percentage of external load P namely not exceeding 20%, while the
clamped members take up more than 80% of the external load P.
• kb is a measure of the proportion of the
km + kb external force or load taken up by the bolt
as the ratio of bolt stiffness and total stiffness of both bolt and clamped
members is a measure of the proportion of total external that the bolt will bear.
Similarly (1-C) is a measure of the proportion of the external force or load
C = or supported by the clamped members.
sustained
Sample Data for C and (1-C )
• Bolt: ½ -13 UNC-2A kb
C=
• Material: Steel km + kb
Bolt M lb/in
Grip
(in) kb km C 1-C
2 2.57 12.69 0.168 0.832

3 1.79 11.33 0.136 0.864
4 1.37 10.63 0.114 0.886
Clamped parts carry > 80% of external load, P
Bolt takes less than 20% of external load P. Making l=lg

- the grip, longer decreases the bolt’s share of the load.
Bolt Design Steps for Static Loading (cont.)
• Second difficulty arises, namely how to obtain value of Sp in the
Design Equation since diameter is required to decide value of Sp and
without Sp diameter cannot be found. Applying the commonsense
or engineering sense approach, one may take the value of Sp at the
top of the Bolt Table i.e., Grade 1 (if SAE bolts) or Grade 4.6 (if
Metric bolts). This obviously might not be correct value but one has
to start with some value for the first iteration. The argument for this
is that the bolts at top of the standard Bolt Table are the cheapest
and have lowest carbon content for steel bolts. Also the size range is
one of the largest and we would prefer to be at the top of the Table.
On might be able to argue in favour of starting at the middle of the
Table (the middle path) and in next iteration move up or down as per
results obtained. Arguments to choose the strongest bolts at bottom
of Table might not be sustainable unless the designer is
experienced enough and has an idea.
• Once Sp is chosen, substitute for Fi as per following guidelines given in books.
• Fi = 0.9 Sp At for steady or static loading and/or
permanent joints i.e., the bolts which
normally are not opened
Fi = 0.75 Sp At for fatigue loading and/or reusable

connections where the joint is likely to
be opened in service
Having substituted for Fi in the Design Equation and
including all factors of safety, At can be evaluated and
looking up standard thread table the diameter known
Discussion on Value of Preload
• Some books suggest only the value of:
• Fi = 0.75 Sp At, irrespective of the type of joint – whether steady
loading or Fatigue and whether reusable (i.e. opened in service and
using the same nut and bolt again) or permanent (not expected to be
opened in service and use the same nut and bolt again). This value of
Fi= 0.75 SpAt can be a safer value as far as bolt extension is
concerned but whether it is the optimum value for steady loading is
debatable.
• Another aspect is how in practice manually will P = 0.75 Sp At and P
= 0.90 Sp At be applied. If snug fit will mean exerting a Preload of Fi =
0.90 Sp At , then how will one apply exactly Fi = 0.75 Sp At. Well one
might use a torque meter but then torque meter can be erroneous to
the extent of 20% to 30% because of variation in friction between
threads of not only different nuts and bolts but also between the
threads of the same nut and bolts at different sections and variation
in collar friction
• The problem of applying correct Preload is a practical problem which
is to be sorted out by developing the
expertise in the field.
• Having completed first iteration to obtain the diameter of the bolt, for second
iteration now accurately calculate the stiffness of bolt and also clamped
members using the Frustum approach. Then calculate C accurately. Since the
first iteration value of bolt diameter is known, it is now possible to choose Sp
from standard bolt Table. If the bolt size is falling in more than one Grade use
the commonsense approach and be as far up the Table as possible.
• This is then the second iteration to obtain At using the Design Equation
• To stop the iteration process to find bolt diameter:
• 1. Check for Incorporated factor of safety Ni =

Sp /b (some books use Sy instead of Sp for finding Ni but there should be
consistency and if Sp is used during iteration stage then for Ni also Sp should
be used) to compare with Design Factor of Safety Nd
• 2. Check the Incorporated Factor of Safety for joint separation Nseparation,

for which the expression is given on next slide. The factor of safety for joint
separation can be checked only with unity and if more than unity it is safe.
• To check for non separation of the clamped members and hence the joint
because of the external force P , it has already been explained that the
external load P should not exceed the Preload Fi to the extent that Pm
should never exceed Fi, where Pm = (1 - C)P is the proportion of the
external force or load taken up or withstood by the clamped members. Hence
the incorporated Factor of Safety to check for joint separation is:
• Fi
(1 - C)P
Nseparation= Nseparation should always

be > 1 to prevent
joint separation
Incorporated Safety Factors for Design and Joint
Separation
•Since two factors Ni and Nseparation are to
be satisfied, it might not be possible
to satisfy: 1 ≤ (Ni / Nd) ≤ 1.25 or
maximum 1.5 and greater than 1.5
is also acceptable
•Hence as long as Ni is ≥ Nd it has to

be accepted along with Nseparation ≥ 1 being
satisfied
Shear of bolt
• To design against shear failure of the bolt to resist shear force F, consider the
shear area A resisting failure based on the minimum or root diameter dr
of the bolt threads. Hence the Design equation is:
• Ssp F x NS x NG x NFA x NE x ND x NEI
NM ( dr 2)/4
=
where, Ssp = 0.577 Sp , using
DET. The shear strength Ssp F

is based on Proof strength
Sp, therefore NM =1.0 should
be assumed
F
Shear Failure of Nut Threads
Another failure mechanism is stripping of the nut threads, which is
essentially shear failure of the nut material on the cylindrical surface at the
thread major diameter. Stripping of the bolt threads is a similar to shear of
the bolt material at the minor diameter - but this is rare. Other possible
failure mechanisms, such as crushing of the nut bearing surface and tearing
of a thin nut due to very little thickness of the Nut material, may not be
critical in themselves, but contribute to other modes of failure – similar to
the case of the Power Screws
Where have you seen power screws?
• jacks for cars
• C-clamps
• vises
• Instron material testing machines
• machine tools (for positioning of table)
218
Screw Jack for Mechanical Advantage
Power Screw Examples
Scissor Style
Car Jack Power Screw
C-Clamp
Power Screw
http://www.clamp-it.com/ with handle Vice
C-Clamps
Malleable frames with steel screws and swivel

http://www.acehardware.com/sm-c-clamps--fi-2628095_cp-2568450.2628092.html
C-Clamp in Use
http://www.hartvilletool.com/product/11573
C-Clamp in Various Sizes
http://www.dickblick.com/products/c-clamps/
Machine Vise
Photograph taken by Glenn McKechnie, September 2005.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vise_%28tool%29
Lathe
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathe_%28metal%29
Lathe Parts
The
feedscrew (H8)
is a long
driveshaft that
allows a series
of gears
to drive the
carriage
mechanisms.
Lathe Parts
Power Screw Example (contd.)
• Typical tensile test machine
extensometer specimen
Power Screws
Picture of a Power Screw used for Precise
Movements
Screw and nut in Power screw
Cut view showing how a screw and nut interact in a Power screw
Trapezoid screw
• The Trapezoidal screw is suitable
for heavy load at low speed.
• Main components: Power Screw
pair and Worm-gears pair.
• It is self-locking and can hold up
load without braking device when
screw stops traveling.
Note: Braking device equipped for
self-lock might malfunction
accidentally when large jolt &
impact
load occur.
Working of a Ball Ball Screws, first invented in the
Screw late 1800s, did not come into
widespread use until the 1940s
when they were adapted for use in
automotive steering gear. Since
that time they have been used in a
variety of industrial and
commercial applications due to
their high efficiency and
predictable service life. Ball screws
utilize a series of ball bearings
between the screw and nut
threads so that movement is
achieved through rolling friction
(see figure ).
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Design of Nut and Screw type of Power
Screw
Design aspects of re-circulating Ball Screws will not be

considered in this course. Only the conventional Nut and Screw
type of Power Screw will be studied in this course
Schematic of Power Screw
• A schematic of Power Screw shows the Nut, Screw
Collar friction & thread friction
Here the handle rotates P
the Nut and the screw
moves axially. Collar friction
is therefore at the bearing.
Screw & Nut
thread friction
Handle
Nut
Collar friction
at Bearing
Base
Screw
Schematic of Power Screw and Nut
• Power Screw rotates and
the Nut moves (or is it P
the reverse?) without
rotation and supports
the load W. Thread
friction exists at threads
C
of Power Screw and Nut.
• A thrust collar of
diameter dc formed at 
Ball Bearing. Friction Power Screw
exists at Ball Bearing
which is the Collar
Friction in this case.
 is the friction between threads of
the power screw and the nut
 is the collar friction

Friction between Screw and Nut
When an externally threaded screw mates with an internally
threaded nut of the same thread form; when either member rotates,
the other member translates. Contact between the screw and nut is
sliding friction at the screw and nut interface surface (Figure).
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Single and Multiple Start Threads
Multiple start threads are used where a greater distance has to be traversed
by lesser number of rotations, e.g., cap of a pen to be unscrewed from the pen
body by only few turns of the cap, since
Lead L = n x p; n = no. of starts.
Single and Multiple Start Threads
Schematic of how multiple threads are formed with each thread
Starting from a different angular position on the cylinder on which
the threads are cut.
Types of Power Screws
• Power Screws are classified by the cross sectional shape of their

threads. Two of them commonly used and considered in our designs
are the following.
• Square Thread
• ACME Thread
Square Thread Form
Square thread form is used for power/force transmission i.e. linear
jacks, clamps.
The friction is low and there is no radial force imposed on the

mating nut. The square thread is the most efficient conventional
power screw form. It is the most difficult form to machine. It is
not very compatible for using split nuts-as used on certain machine
tool system for withdrawing the tool carriers.
Acme Thread Form
• ACME thread series were developed in 1895, as an alternative to square

threads for use in positioning and power transmission. Acme screws are
widely used in power screws for linear motion. These are inch threads.
• The equivalent metric threads which have nearly similar shape are called
Trapezoidal thread power screws.
Acme Thread Form
 Used for power transmission i.e. lathe lead screws.
 Easier to manufacture compared to a square thread.
 It has superior root strength characteristics compared to
a square thread.
 The acme screw thread has been developed for machine
tool drives. They are easy to machine and can be used
with split nuts. The thread has an optimum efficiency of
about 70% for helix angles between 250 and 650. Outside
this range the efficiency falls away.
Square and ACME Thread forms
1
Buttress Threads
 A strong low friction thread.
However it is designed only to take large loads in on
direction.
For a given size this is the strongest of the thread forms.
When taking heavy loads on the near vertical thread face
this thread is almost as efficient as a square thread form.
Power Screw Types – a Comparison
• Square
• strongest
• no radial load
• hard to manufacture 900 angle; hence slight
angle of about 70 from vertical formed when
manufactured
• Acme
• 29° included angle
• easier to manufacture
• common choice for loading in both directions
• Buttress
• great strength
• only unidirectional loading
Thread Backlash
Nut and Screw threads in mesh to show Backlash. Zero Backlash with these
types of Power Screws is not possible. With Ball Screws it is possible. With
usage wear causes increase in Backlash
Load to be moved
Primary concern in any screw and nut system is the amount
of load to be moved.
The load must be determined by the designer before the
proper type and size of screw can be selected.
If the load is to be moved vertically, the nut load is equal to
the weight to be moved plus the friction load.
If a load is to be moved horizontally, the weight must be
multiplied by the coefficient of friction to determine the net
load on the nut.
Loads can also be measured with a spring scale or
dynamometer. For loads which are neither horizontal or
vertical, this may be the easiest method.
The higher the load, the larger the size of the screw and nut
that will be needed.
UP and DOWN the Inclined Plane
• For the Design of the Power Screw, the expression for the Torque
required to move the Load is of paramount importance. This will
now be attempted – first for Square thread Power screw and then
for ACME thread screw
• The expressions for ‘Torque required’ are derived for Raising Load
(UP) the inclined plane and Lowering Load (DOWN) the inclined
plane
• However UP and DOWN are generic terms and the equations are
equally valid when the Load is moved to the Left of to the Right in
the Horizontal direction as in a Lathe Lead screw. It is applicable for
a Power Screw at any inclination. What has to be compared is: which
are the equations of equilibrium applicable – is it the situation
comparable to ‘UP’ the plane or is it the situation
comparable to ‘DOWN’ the plane
Glossary of Terms
• Pitch Diameter The pitch diameter of a screw thread is the diameter
at which the thread thickness and the thread space are equal.
• Root Diameter A term referring to the minor diameter of a screw
thread or the major diameter of a nut thread. Root diameter has
been replaced by the more accurate terms "major diameter" and
"minor diameter".
• Major Diameter On a screw thread, the major diameter is the
diameter of a cylinder formed by the crests of the screw. On a nut
thread, the major diameter is the diameter of a cylinder formed by
the roots of the threads. It is common to specify threads beginning
with their major diameter.
• Minor Diameter On a nut thread, the minor diameter is the diameter
of a cylinder formed by the crests of the nut threads. On a screw
thread, the minor diameter is the diameter of a cylinder formed by
the roots of the threads. Formerly, the minor diameter was called
the "root diameter" and it still commonly referred to as root
diameter.
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Helix Unwound
• A screw is an inclined plane that winds around itself and has ridges
and is not smooth like a nail. Some screws are used to lower and
raise things while others are used to hold objects together. A screw is
like the ramp -the width of the thread is like the angle of an inclined
plane. The wider the thread of a screw, the harder it is to turn it.
• The distance between the threads depends on the slope of the
inclined plane - the steeper the slope, the wider the thread and
screws with less distance between the threads are easier to turn.
• The screw is an inclined plane wound around a central cylinder.
Helix Unwound
Make Your Own Inclined Plane to show that a screw is an
inclined plane. Take a paper, pencil, tape and crayon or pen
Procedure: Cut a sheet of paper in half to obtain right angle
triangles and colour the longest side. Tape one of the uncolored
sides of the triangle to the pencil. Wrap the triangle around the
pencil and tape down. The triangle wraps in a spiral
Several examples of incline planes exist, which make life easier,
such as a ramp and there are others such a screw or bolt to
reduce work during fastening or even when used as jacks to
raise or lower weights.
Screw Shape
• A screw is an inclined plane
wrapped around a cylinder,
forming the path and pitch.
• It is used as a threaded
fastener and to change rotary
motion to linear force.
Helices
• Plural of helix is helices. When a string is wound around a pencil or
any cylinder, the string takes the form of a helix. Similarly, all screw
threads are helices winding around a shaft. Springs, bolt threads and
stairways also contain helices. Below some helices are shown (Rt and
Lt hand).
Power Screws
Power screws are used for providing linear motion in a smooth
uniform manner. They transform rotary motion into linear
motion.
Power screws are used for the following three reasons:
To obtain high mechanical advantage in order to move large

loads with minimum effort. e.g Screw Jack
To generate large forces e.g compactor press – to compact

something
To obtain precise axial movements e.g. machine tool lead screw
Power Screw Threads
Power Screw
The Helix
A helix is the locus
of a point as it
moves on the surface
of a cylinder so that
it rotates at a
constant rate around
the surface of the
cylinder, while also
progressing in the
direction of the axis
at a constant rate
Opening out a Helix
The development of one turn of a helix

appears as a right angled triangle
Vertical Power Screw Up
Down
Model for load action
The load is carried by the threads of the power Screw and the Nut
within which it moves. The load is distributed over the width of the
screw thread as shown in the figure. Doing an analysis based on such a
distribution will be mathematically complicated. Designers always use
as simple a model that serves the purpose and it is found here that
assuming a point load acting at what is known as pitch diameter serves
the purpose. However one should be able to obtain the pitch diameter
and if not the analysis is done assuming the point load to act at mean
diameter and serves the purpose equally well. Books use any of these
diameters.
P
F L = Lead
l
dp
Mechanics of Power Screws
y P
x F
f A square-threaded
L
l N
power screw with
 dp
single thread
dp Lowering having a pitch
diameter dp, a pitch
p, a lead angle l,
F
and a helix angle y
P
is loaded by the
axial compressive
Pitch force F.
y P
Nut x F
f
l N L
 dp
P/2 P/2
Lifting
For Lifting load-Resolution of Forces
y P
x
F
N L
l
 dp
y N Lifting
x
F L
l P
 dp
Lifting
Σ FH = F – N sinλ – f cosλ
Σ FV = P + f sinλ – N cosλ
For Lowering load-Resolution of Forces
y P
x F
f L
N
l
 dp
y N Lowering
x F
L
l P
 dp
Lowering
Σ FH = – F – N sinλ + f cosλ
Σ FV = – P + f sinλ + N cosλ
More completely… dp/2 F
dp
LIFTING: +
P 
 d p  L 
2  
d p  L 
LOWERING:
P 
 d p  L 
 d p  c dc 
TTd
d 2  
d p  L 
y P y P
x f x F
F f
N L N L
l l
 dp  dp
LIFTING LOWERING
Total Torque Tu
• The total torque to lift the load with a Square Thread is:
P dp ( dp + L)
dc
Tu = Tsu + Tc = + c P
2 ( d p –  L) 2
dp
dp dp F
Torque Tsu = F P
2
F Pitch
P
Tsu Nut
P/2 P/2
Nut If value of dp is not available then
one has to adopt mean diameter dm
P/2 P/2 instead of dp in the equation.
Force on SQUARE and ACME threads
(a) Force normal to a square (b) Force normal to an ACME thread
thread
P P P
cos f
f=14.50
2 f=00
2 f=290
The effect of the angle is to increase the frictional force due to

the wedge action of ACME threads. Therefore the frictional
terms, namely coefficient of friction in the Torque equations
for Square threads must be divided by cos (f) to obtain the
equations for Torque to raise UP or lower DOWN the
Load for ACME threads.
For Acme Threads as per Norton
Lifting
P 
 d p  L cos a  
2  
d p cos a  L  
Lowering
P 
 d p  L cos a  
Td   d p  c dc 
Td
2  
d p cos a  L  
Self-Locking / Back Driving as per Norton
Self-locking – screw cannot turn from load P
Back-driving – screw can be turned from load P
P 
 d p  L cos a  
Td  d p  c dc 
Td
2  
d p cos a  L  
For self-locking: Numerator should be +ve

L
 cos a or   tan l cos a
d p
Would square or Acme of same dimensions
lock first?
Efficiency as per Norton
Wout PL cos a   tan l
e  
Win 2T cos a   cot l
derive with frictionless

-for lifting- higher efficiency for lowering
torque/torque)
(also
Buckling
Column Loading
Screws which are loaded in compression may be

so slender (long in relation to diameter) that they
can fail by elastic instability (buckling) much
before they reach their static load limit or
compressive strength. A screw system design
which undergoes a compressive load must be
checked for safe column loading.
Buckling equations are

provided in the book (see
Index) and then check for
buckling failure can be
done as a final check
on the design.
Power screw and nut materials
Power Screws are simple and inexpensive for use in many
different applications such as machine tools, clamping
mechanisms, farm machinery, medical equipment, aerospace
and other mechanisms of many industries.
Power screws are typically made from carbon steel, alloy steel,
or stainless steel and they are usually used with bronze, plastic,
or steel mating nuts.
Bronze and plastic nuts are popular for higher duty

applications and they provide low coefficients of friction for
minimizing drive torques. Steel nuts are used for only limited
duty where relative speeds are low or manual driven situations
(so as to avoid galling of like materials).
www.roton.com
Torsional Stress Depends on friction at screw-nut interface
For screw and nut

If totally locked (rusted together), the screw experiences
all of Torque. If frictionless, the screw experiences none
of the torque
Tr 16T
 = =
J dr3
For power screw
If low collar friction, the screw experiences nearly all of
torque. If high collar friction, the nut experiences most
of the torque
Thank you for
R. K. Pandey,
Professor,
IIT Delhi, India
272
[Credit: 3 (L-T-P: 3-0-0)]

Material Science,
Prof. R. K. Pandey
R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016, India 1

R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT

Delhi, New Delhi-110016, India 2
repeated loading.




What you learn?

case.

Text books
book)
this book)
Attendance policy


30% marks.

Evaluation scheme

______________________________________
100 Marks
______________________________________

Dr. R. K. Pandey
Professor
Note: If you are not able to meet coordinator in his office and
have urgency to meet, please send an e-mail for the
appointment or for getting the response of your query
through e-mail itself.
Part-4
11
Fatigue Failure Theories
(Dynamic failure theories)
R. K. Pandey, Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Delhi, India
Summary of the topics covered
till date:
• Background, Procedure of design,
Material selection, Factor of safety
• Stresses arising due to simple and
combined static loadings on machine
components
• Static failure theories (MSST, DET, MNST)
• Diving board, Screw jack, Wall crane
• Fasteners: Turn-buckle
Dynamic/ variable/ alternating loading
and its consequences:
• Take a piece (small length) of
aluminum/steel wire and load it in
transverse direction by bending. It
will sustain significant load.
• Now bend it by applying reversal
loads. You may notice its failure even
at much less magnitude of the load.
• Why it is so?
Many mechanical systems are subjected
to variable/alternate loading/stress
Loadings on mechanical systems

Loadings on ship structure
Failures of Liberty ships
Liberty ships were cargo ships built in
the United States during World War
II. Though concepts of ship were
developed in UK, and same were
adapted by the US. Using the concept ,
it was economical and quick to build
the ship.
Eighteen American shipyards built
2,710 Liberty ships between 1941
and 1945, easily the largest
number of ships produced to a
single design. These ships were
meant for carrying cargo to Britain
and USSR via other nations.
Photographic view of Liberty ship
Failure of Liberty ship
A view of a
Liberty
ship after
failure.
Cause (s) of Liberty ships’ failure
Loading/stress on commercial aircraft
Aloha Airlines Flight No. 243,
28 April 1988.
28 April 1988.
Note the crack in bridge (as if death is
waiting)
Many machine parts (axle, shaft,
crankshaft, connecting rod, spring,
gear teeth etc.) are subjected to
variable loads (or alternating loads,
or time varying loads).
What are variable loads or alternating
loads or time varying loads?
Fully reversed loading
Repeated loading
Fluctuating loading General case of loading

Complete reversal, Repeated, Fluctuating
30
• With time varying stresses,
failures typically occur at stress
levels significantly lower than the
yield strength of materials.
• Thus, using only static failure

theories can lead to unsafe
designs when the loads are
dynamic/varying.
Fatigue failures : an overview
 This phenomenon was first noticed in

UK when railroad-car axles
began failing after only limited time in
service.
 These axles were made of ductile steel

but exhibited sudden or brittle like
failures.
Rankine (1843) published a paper
“On causes of unexpected
breakage of railways axles” in
which the author postulated that
the material has “Crystallized”
and become brittle due to the
fluctuating stress.
Dynamic loads were then ( in
1800s) a new phenomenon
resulting from the introduction
of steam powered machinery.
A. Wohler ( a German engineer)
made the first scientific
investigation into fatigue failure
by testing axles to failure in the
laboratory under fully revered
loading.
Wohler identified the number of
cycles of time varying stress as the
culprit and found the existence of
an endurance limit for steels.
Endurance limit: Stress level
would be tolerable for 106/107 of
cycles of fully reversed stress.
Wohler’s S-N diagram ( Ferrous
alloy):
Log-Log plot of S-N curve for wrought steel
Low cycle fatigue (LCF) and High cycle fatigue (HCF)
“Fatigue” word first used by a researcher
in 1839. That time mechanism of failure
was not understood.
Brittle appearance of the failure surface

in a ductile material caused speculation
that material had somehow become
“tired” and “embrittled” from load
oscillations.
Refer Table 6.1 for chronological
development on Fatigue, Page
320 of the main text book i.e.
(R. L. Norton, Machine Design-

An Integrated Approach,
Pearson Asia)
Mechanism of Fatigue Failure
1. Crack initiation (short duration)

2. Crack propagation (most of the
life of part)
3. Sudden fracture due to unstable
crack growth (instantaneous)
Stage-I:Crack initiation (short duration)
Stress raiser/notch:
 Collection of particles,
inclusions
 Stress at the notch
oscillate
 Local yielding occurs
due to stress
concentration which
creates distortion and
slip planes.
Stage-II: Crack Propagation
Once a micro crack
is established,
mechanism of
fracture mechanics
become
operational.
i.e. opening and
closing of crack.
Stage-III: Sudden fracture
Crack will
continue to
grow as long as
cyclic tensile
stress is
present.
Measuring fatigue failure strength
Rotating
beam test
Experimental setup of R. R. Moore

(Speed=1725 rpm, Dia=7.62 mm)
Pull-Pull load or Pull-Push Load
Low cycle
fatigue, LCF
(i.e. high
stress)
High cycle
fatigue, HCF
(i.e. low
stress)
Unidirectional bending (LCF and
HCF) (Pull-Pull)
Reversed bending (LCF, HCF)
Rotational bending (LCF, HCF)
Fatigue Failure Models/Theories
1. Stress life (S-N) approach

2. Strain life (-N) approach
3. Linear elastic fracture mechanics
In this course, we will

use S-N approach only.
Any of stress waveform can be characterized by the
following parameters:
Mean component:
 m  ( max   min ) / 2
Alternating component:
 a  ( max   min ) / 2
Stress ratio(R)   min /  max

Amplitude ratio(A)   a /  m
Stress range( )   max   min
Alternating
stress
Fluctuating stress
Effect of mean stress on the fatigue life
Endurance limit ( S e' )
Knee in S-N diagram defines an

endurance limit ( S ) for the material.
e'
This is stress level below which it can

be cycled infinitely without failure.
'
Endurance strength (S )
f
(Or Fatigue strength)
Fatigue strength is general term, it can

be defined at any N.
Estimating theoretical endurance limit ( Se )
'
fatigue strength (S ) :
f'
Steels:
Irons:
Alumin-
ums:
Copper
alloys:
Correction Factors for Theoretical
Fatigue Strength or Endurance Limit
Se  Cload * Csize * Csurf * Ctemp * Creliab * S'

e
S f  Cload * Csize * Csurf * Ctemp * Creliab * S '

f
Load factor (Cload):
For case of bending:

Cload  1.0
For case of torsion:
Cload  1.0
For case of axial loading:
Cload  0.7
Size factor (Csize):
(I). For d  8 mm, Csize  1.0

(II). For 8mm  d  250 mm:
0.097
Csize  1.189d
(III). For larger sizes , Csize  0.6

Size factor
Equivalent diameter for any
cross section:
Surface
factor,
Csurf
Surface factor (Csurf)
Temperature factor (Ctemp):
Reliability factor (Creliab):
Calculation of corrected S-N diagram
Calculation of corrected S-N diagram:
For bending: Sm=0.9 Sut

For axial loading: Sm=0.75 Sut
Example-1
Create an estimated S-N diagram for a hot
rolled finish steel square bar (150x150
mm) by developing its equation. How
many cycles of life can be expected if the
alternating stress is 100 MPa. Assume
loading type as fully reversed bending.
Operating temperature is 5000C and
ultimate strength is 600 MPa. Assume
reliability factor of 99.9%.
Step-1
No endurance limit or fatigue

strength information is given, thus:
Se'  0.5Sut  0.5*600  300MPa

Step-2
Loading is bending, thus:
Cload  1.0
Step-3
The part is not round, thus:
Step-4
Surface factor is read from the graph:
Csurf = 0.584
Step-5
Temperature factor
Step-6
Reliability factor from table:
Step-7
Corrected endurance limit
Step-8
Estimate strength Sm at 103 cycles:
Step-9
Estimate a and b:
S-N diagram (Life at 100 MPa)
Stress concentration due to notch
All the discussion of stress

distribution within loaded
members has, up to now,
assumed that the members’ cross
sections were uniform
throughout.
What is a notch?
A notch can be a hole, a groove, a fillet,
an abrupt change in cross section, or
any disruption to the smooth contours
of a part.
Designing to avoid stress concentrations
1. Avoid abrupt
and/or large
magnitude
change in cross-
section.
2. Avoid sharp
corners
Force
flow
analogy
Kt, Kts =Geometrical stress
concentration factor (also called static
stress concentration factor) for normal
stress and shear stress, respectively.
Notch sensitivity (q):
Notch sensitivity (q) is defined for
various materials and used to modify
the geometric stress concentration
factors Kt and Kts for a given material
under dynamic loading.
Determination of geometric stress
concentration factors (Kt and Kts)
Fatigue stress concentration factor (Kf):
Notch sensitivity:
Materials have different sensitivity to
stress concentrations.
More the ductile material, less the notch

sensitive.
As per Peterson the notch sensitivity is:
Kt= Static stress concentration factor

Kf= Dynamic stress concentration factor
1. Determine Kt for particular
geometry and loading
2. Establish notch sensitivity
3. Find Kf
Determination of Fatigue stress
concentration factors
A rectangular stepped bar similar to that shown
in following figure is to be loaded in bending.
Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor
for the given dimensions.
Ex: Design of a Cantilever Bracket
for Fully Reversed Bending
A feed roll assembly is to be mounted at each end
on support brackets cantilevered from the machine
frame as shown in the associated figure. The feed
roll experiences a fully reversed load of 1000 lb
amplitude. Design a cantilever bracket to support a
fully reversed bending load of 500 lb for 1x109
cycles with no failure. Its dynamic deflection can
not exceed 0.01 in.
… continued design of a cantilever bracket for Fully Reversed Bending
The load time function shape is shown

in figure. The operating environment is
room air at a maximum temperature of
1200 F. The space available allows a
maximum cantilever length of 6 in.
The bracket can be clamped between
essentially rigid plates or bolted at its root.
The normal load will be applied at the
effective tip of the cantilever beam from a rod
attached through a small hole in the beam.
Since the bending moment is effectively zero
at the beam tip, the stress concentration from
this hole can be ignored.
Step-I
Tentative part geometry design
Step-II
Find (assume suitable

dimension) trial dimensions for
b, d, D, r , a, and l.
Step-III
Step-IV
(Read from graph)

Step-V
Read from
graph:
Step-VI
Step-VII
Step-VIII
Step-IX
Step-X
Design fails with a factor

safety of less than one. Thus,
iterations are needed by
changing any of dimensions,
materials etc.
Example-2: Design the driving shaft as
per ASME code if the maximum output
of engine is 35kW at the vehicle speed of
85 km/h. The transmission system is
above (300 inclined with vertical) and
forward of the driving shaft.
Hints:
ASME code is used for design of shafts
normally acted upon by gradual and sudden
loads. Hence suitable load factors (bending and
torsion factors) are used with bending moment
and torsion.
Load gradually applied: kb=1.5, kt=1.0
Load suddenly applied (minor shock): kb=1.5-
2.0, kt=1.0-1.5
Load suddenly applied (heavy shock): kb=2-3,
kt=1.5- 3.
Allowable design stress max = 0.30Syt (without
keyway), Allowable design stress max = 0.18Sut
(without keyway) [These relations nicely hold
for commercial/purchased steels].
Use lesser value of allowable design stress,

max, achieved from above two relations. In
ASME code FOS is not used.
If keyways are present, max values are to be

reduced by 25%.
126
Various Failure
Lines/Curves for
Fluctuating Stresses
When a machine component is
subjected to fluctuating stresses, it
experiences following components of
stresses:
1. Mean stress
2. Alternating stress
1. When alternating stress is zero, the load
is purely static and criterion of failure is
Syt or Sut.
2. When mean stress is zero, the stress is
completely reversing and the criterion
of failure is the endurance limit.
3. When the machine component is
subjected to both components of stress,
failure occurs at different scattered
points shown in the following figure.
Fatigue failure lines/curves:
Modified Goodman line:
Goodman line is widely used as the
criterion of fatigue failure when
machine component is subjected to
mean stress as well as alternating
stress.
Design steps of machine components
subjected to fluctuating stresses
Step-1:
Determine the number of cycles of

loading (N) that part will experience
over its expected service life.
Step-2:
Determine the amplitude of the

applied alternating loads (mean to
peak) and of the mean load.
Step-3:
Design the components with static
loadings for creating tentative
geometries.
Step-4:
Determine geometric stress
concentration factors (Kt) at notches.
Step-5:
Convert the geometric stress
concentration factors (Kt) to fatigue
concentration factors (Kf) using the
materials’ q.
Step-6:
Calculate the alternating tensile stress
amplitudes at critical locations in the
part.
Calculate the nominal mean stress

amplitude at the same critical location
and increase them with mean fatigue
stress-concentration factors.
Step-7:
Calculate the principal stress and

von-Mises stress amplitudes for
the critical location based on their
states of applied stress. Do this
separately for the mean and
alternating stress components.
Step-8:
Choose a tentative material for the

part and determine its properties
of interest such as Sut, Sy, Se, Sf, q
etc.
Step-9:
Determine appropriate fatigue

strength modification factors for
the type of loading, size of part,
surface, etc.
Step-10:
Define the corrected Se (or Sf).

Create a modified-Goodman line
diagram using the material’s
corrected fatigue strength. Write
equations for the Goodman line
and yield line.
Step-11:
Plot the mean and alternating von

Mises stresses on the modified-
Goodman line diagram and
calculate a safety factor for the
design.
Step-12:
Iteration is required to refine the

design. Any subset of steps can be
repeated as many times as
necessary to obtain an acceptable
design.
Relation between ‘Kf’ and ‘Kfm’
Example:
A feed roll assembly is to be mounted at
its ends on support brackets cantilevered
from the machine frame as shown in
associated figure. The feed roll
experience a total fluctuating load that
varies from a minimum of 200 lb to a
maximum of 2200 lb, split equally
between the two support brackets.
Design a cantilever bracket to support a
fluctuating bending load of 100 lb to
1100 lb amplitude for 1E9 cycles with
no failure. Dynamic deflection of
cantilever should not exceed 0.02 in.
The operating environment is room air
at 120 degree F. Length of cantilever is
6 in.
essentially rigid plates bolted at its root.
Normal load is applied at the tip of
cantilever beam from a rod attached in
the hole. Stress concentration due to
hole may be ignored.
Step-1:
Very few data are given except for the

loading on the device, some
limitations on size, and the required
cycle life. Thus, there is need to do
some assumptions about material,
geometry etc.
Material: SAE 1040,
Sut= 80kpsi, Syt= 60kpsi
Geometry: b= 2 in, d=1 in, D=1.125

in, r= 0.5 in, l=6 in
Step-2: Determination of loads
Step-3: Determination of Kt
Read from graph.
Step-4: Determination of ‘Kf’
(Read from graph)

Step-5: Local mean and alternating
notch stresses
Step-6 von-Mises stress amplitudes
for the critical location
Step-7: Determine Se, q etc.
Calculate factor of safety at four
locations. For Nf3, calculation has been
done.
Step-8 Creation of modified-
Goodman line diagram
Nf1=8.6; Nf2= 3.1; Nf3=2.6; Nf4= 2.3
Nf1=5.5; Nf2= 2.2; Nf3=1.9; Nf4= 1.7

Increasing the part’s cross-section dimensions slightly
gives the better design. The final dimensions are b = 2
in, d = 1.2 in, D = 1.4 in, r = 0.5 in, a = 5 in, and l = 6.0
in. Nf3 becomes 2.6 and the maximum deflection
becomes 0.007 in.
New dimensions:
b = 2, d = 1.2, D = 1.4, r = 0.5, a = 5.0, and l = 6.0
Old dimensions:
b = 2, d = 1, D = 1.125, r = 0.5, a = 5.0, and l = 6.0
167
Step-9 Iterations
Thus, increase the part cross-section

and do iterations.
Home work:
Please go through the following
solved problem given in book.
Shaft Design
Transmission shafts are used in every
piece of rotating machinery to transmit
rotary motion and torque from one
location to another.
Machine designer is often faced with

the task of designing shafts.
170
A shaft typically transmits torque from the
driving device (motor, or engine).
Sometimes shafts will carry gears, sheaves
(pulleys), or sprockets, which transmit the
rotary motion via mating gears, belts, or
chains from shaft to shaft. The shaft may be
an integral part of the driver, such as a
motor shaft or engine crankshaft, or it may
be a free standing shaft connected to its
neighbour by coupling.
171
Automated production machinery often has
line shafts that extend the length of the
machine (10 m or more) and carry the power
to all the workstations. Shafts are carried in
bearings, in a simply supported (straddle-
mounted) configuration, cantilevered, or
overhung, depending on the machine
configuration.
172
Steps or shoulders are necessary to provide
accurate and consistent axial location of the
attached elements as well as to create the
proper diameter to fit standard parts such as
bearings.
173
Keys, snap rings, or pins are often used to secure
attached elements to the shaft in order to transmit the
required torque or to locate the parts axially. Keys
require a groove in both shaft and part and may need a
setscrew to prevent axial motion. Snap rings groove
the shaft, and cross-pins create a hole through the
shaft. Each of these changes in contour will contribute
some stress concentration and this must be accounted
for in the design of the shaft. 174
Materials:
In order to minimize deflections, steel is the logical
choice for a shaft material because of its high modulus of
elasticity.
Bronze or stainless steel is sometimes used for marine or

other corrosive environments.
[Shaft also serves as the journal, running against a sleeve

bearing, hardness can become an issue]
Through- or case-hardened steel may be the material of

choice for the shaft in these cases. Rolling-element
bearings do not need hardened shafts.
175
Most machine shafts are made from low- to medium-
carbon steel, either cold rolled or hot rolled, though
alloy steels are also used where their higher strengths
are needed.
Cold-rolled steel is more often used for smaller-

diameter shafts (< about 3-in dia) and hot-rolled used
for larger sizes.
The same alloy when cold rolled has higher mechanical

properties than if hot rolled due to the cold working, but
this comes at the cost of residual tensile stresses in the
surface.
176
Machining for keyways, grooves, or steps relieves these
residual stresses locally and can cause warping.
Hot-rolled bars must be machined all over to remove the

carburized outer layer, whereas portions of a cold-rolled
surface can be left as-rolled except where machining to
size is needed for bearings, etc.
Pre hardened (30HRC) and ground precision (straight)

steel shafting can be purchased in small sizes and can be
machined with carbide tools. Full-hard, ground,
precision shafting (60HRC) is also available but cannot
be machined.
177
Design adopting stress and deflection approaches
Both stresses and deflections need to be considered in shaft

design. Often, deflection can be the critical factor, since
excessive deflections will cause rapid wear of shaft
bearings. Gears, belts, or chains driven from the shaft can
also suffer from misalignment introduced by shaft
deflections.
Stresses in a shaft can be calculated locally for various

points along the shaft based on known loads and assumed
cross sections. But, the deflection calculations require that
the entire shaft geometry be defined.
178
Shaft is typically first designed using stress considerations
and then the deflections calculated once the geometry is
completely defined.
The relationship between the shaft’s natural frequencies

(in both torsion and bending) and the frequency content of
the force and torque-time functions can also be critical. If
the forcing functions are close in frequency to the shaft’s
natural frequencies, resonance can create vibrations, high
stresses, and large deflections.
179
Standard diameters of steel shafts
180
Transmission shafts are subjected to axial tensile force,
bending moment or torsional moment or their combinations.
Most of the transmission shafts are subjected to combined
bending and torsional moments. The design of transmission
shaft consists of determining the correct shaft diameter from
strength and rigidity considerations.
181
Some key points:
 To minimize both deflections and stresses, the shaft
length should be kept as short as possible and
overhangs minimized.
 A cantilever beam will have a larger deflection than

a simply supported (straddle mounted) one for the
same length, load, and cross section, so straddle
mounting should be used unless a cantilevered shaft
is dictated by design constraints.
182
 A hollow shaft has a better stiffness/mass ratio
(specific stiffness) and higher natural frequencies
than a comparably stiff or strong solid shaft, but
will be more expensive and larger in diameter.
 Keep stress-raisers away from regions of large

bending moment if possible and minimize their
effects with generous radii and reliefs.
 If minimizing deflection is the primary concern,

then low-carbon steel may be the preferred
material, since its stiffness is as high as that of more
expensive steels and a shaft designed for low
deflection will tend to have low stresses. 183
 Deflections at gears carried on the shaft should
not exceed about 0.005 in and the relative slope
between the gear axes should be less than about
0.03°.
 If plain (sleeve) bearings are used, the shaft

deflection across the bearing length should be
less than the oil-film thickness in the bearing.
 If non-self-aligning rolling element bearings are

used, the shaft’s slope at the bearings should be
kept to less than about 0.04°.
184
If axial thrust loads are present, they should be taken
to ground through a single thrust bearing per load
direction. Do not split axial loads between thrust
bearings, as thermal expansion of the shaft can
overload the bearings.
The first natural frequency of the shaft should be at

least three times the highest forcing frequency
expected in service, and preferably much more. (A
factor of 10X or more is preferred, but this is often
difficult to achieve in mechanical systems).
185
ASME code for shaft design
One important approach of designing a

transmission shaft is to use the ASME code.
According to this code, the permissible
shear stress (Sys) for the shaft without
keyways is taken as 30% of yield strength
(Syt) in tension or 18% of the ultimate
tensile strength (Sut) of the material,
whichever is minimum.
186
If keyways are present, the above values are to be reduced
by 25 per cent. According to the ASME code, the bending
and torsional moments are to be multiplied by factors kb
and kt respectively, to account for shock and fatigue in
operating condition. The ASME code is based on
maximum shear stress theory of failure. Thus, modifying
the earlier mentioned equations:
187
where,
kb = combined shock and fatigue factor applied to
bending moment
kt = combined shock and fatigue factor applied to
torsional moment
The values of kb and kt for rotating shafts are given as:
188
Example: The layout of a transmission shaft carrying
two pulleys B and C and supported on bearings A and
D is shown in the associated figure. Power is supplied
to the shaft by means of a vertical belt on the pulley B,
which is then transmitted to the pulley C carrying a
horizontal belt. The maximum tension in the belt on
the pulley B is 2.5 kN. The angle of wrap for both the
pulleys is 180° and the coefficient of friction is 0.24.
The shaft is made of plain carbon steel 30C8 (Syt =
400 Mpa) and the factor of safety is 3. Determine the
shaft diameter on strength basis.
189
Given:
Syt = 400 MPa, FOS= 3
For belt drive:

Maximum tension = 2.5 kN;
 = 0.24; = 180°
190
191
192
ASME method/approach for the design of shafts
Design of Transmission Shafting is published as

B106.1M-1985. This standard presents a simplified
approach to the design of shafts. The ASME
approach assumes that the loading is fully reversed
bending (zero mean bending component) and steady
torque (zero alternating torque component) at a level
that creates stresses below the torsional yield
strength of the material. The standard makes the case
that many machine shafts are in this category.
193
Starting with the relationship for the failure envelope in
adjoining figure:
194
Introduce a safety factor Nf
195
196
Solving previous relation for yields:
ASME standard assumes the stress concentration for

mean stress kfsm to be 1 in all cases, which yields:
197
The ASME standard gives non-conservative results if
either of the loading components that it assumes to
be zero. Thus, it is recommend using the more
general approach of equation given below, which
covers all loading situations.
198
Problems:
1. Shaft Design for Steady Torsion and

Fully Reversed Bending
2. Shaft Design for Repeated Torsion

with Repeated Bending
199
Example:
Design a shaft to support the attachments as shown in

coming slide with a minimum design safety factor of 2.5.
A preliminary design of the shaft configuration is shown
in the coming figure. It must transmit 2 hp at 1725 rpm.
The torque and the force on the gear are both constant
with time. There are no applied axial loads. Design will be
done for infinite life. Assume a stress-concentration factor
of 3.5 for the step radii in bending, 2 for step radii in
torsion, and 4 at the keyways.
Note: Since the torque is steady and the bending moment fully reversed, the
ASME method can be used.
200
201
1. Transmitted torque from the given power
and angular velocity
This torque exists only over the

portion of shaft between the
sheave and the gear and is
uniform in magnitude over that
length as shown in adjoining
figure.
202
2. The tangential forces on sheave and gear are found from
the torque and their respective radii. A V-belt has tension
on both sides, and the ratio between the force F1 on the
tight side and F2 on the “slack” side is usually assumed to
be about 5. The net force associated with the driving torque
is Fn = F1 – F2, but the force that bends the shaft is Fs = F1
+ F2. Combining these relationships yields Fs = 1.5Fn.
Looking from the sheave end:
203
3. The tangential force at the spur-gear tooth is:
The spur gear has a 20° pressure angle as shown,

which means that there will also be a radial component
of force at the gear tooth of
204
4. Solve for the reaction forces in the xz and yz planes
using ΣFx = 0, ΣMx = 0 and ΣFy = 0, ΣMy = 0 with the
trial dimensions, a = 1.5, b = 5, and c = 6.5 (which
make p = 2 and q = 6.75).
205
5. The shear load and bending moment acting on the
shaft can now be found
206
207
6. The shear and moment distributions over the shaft
length are shown in previous figures. The applied torque
is uniform over the portion of shaft between points B
and D. Within that length, there are three locations of
concern where a moment occurs in combination with a
stress concentration: point B at the step and keyway
under the gear (MB = ±33 lb-in), point C at the right
bearing where there is a step with a small radius to fit
the bearing (MC = ±63 lb-in), and point D at the sheave
step (MD = ±9 lb-in). Note that because of its high stress
concentration, the snap ring groove used for axial
location has been placed at the end of the shaft where
the moment and torque both are zero.
208
7. Taking low-carbon, cold-rolled steel such as SAE 1020
with Sut = 65 kpsi and Syt = 38 kpsi. Though not
exceptionally strong, this material has low notch
sensitivity, which will be an advantage given the large
stress concentrations. The uncorrected endurance strength
for material:
209
8. The material’s notch sensitivity is found from either
equation 6.13 (p. 345) or Figure 6-36 (pp. 344–345) and is
q = 0.5 in bending and q = 0.57 in torsion, assuming a
notch radius of 0.01 in.
9. The fatigue stress-concentration factor is found from

equation 6.11b (p. 343) using the assumed geometric
stress-concentration factor noted above. For the bending
stress in the step at point C:
210
10. The shaft diameter at point C can be found from using
the moment magnitude as follows:
211
11. At point B, under the gear, the moment is less, but the
fatigue stress-concentration factors Kf and Kfs are greater so
diameter should also be calculated at poit B:
12. The minimum recommended diameter at point B:
212
13. Another location of possible failure is the step against
which the sheave seats, at point D. The moment is lower
than at C, being about 9.1 lb-in. However, the shaft will be
stepped smaller there and will have the same order of
stress concentration as at point C. (The keyway for the
sheave is in a region of zero moment and so will be
ignored.). Diameter at point D:
213
All dimensions are in mm.
W23(tan.)=2400 N, W54 (tan.)=-10800 N
W23 (rad.)=-870 N, W54 (rad.)=-3900 N
RAz= 422 N
RAy=1439 N
RBz=8822 N
RBy=3331 N
Torque=360 N.m
Start with point I:
At point I the bending moment is

high. There is stress concentration at
the shoulder. Torque is also present.
M=468 N.m T= 360 N.m

Assume generous fillet radius for gear at I:
Estimated Kt= 1.7, Kts=1.5
Assuming Kf=Kt, Kfs=Kts
Assuming material Steel 1020 CD:

Sut= 469 MPa
Computed Se= 186 MPa

For first estimate of the small
diameter at the shoulder at point I:
All estimates have probably been
conservative. Thus, selecting
standard size of shaft i.e. d=42 mm.
A typical D/d ratio for support at the

shoulder is D/d=1.2. Thus,
D=1.2x42= 50.4 mm. Using D= 50
mm.
Kt=1.6 [Assuming r=d/10=4
mm, r/d= 0.1]
q=0.82
Kf=1.49
Kts=1.35, qs= 0.95
Kfs=1.33
Se=173 MPa
Thank you for
kind attention

[Credit: 3 (L-T-P: 3-0-0)]

Material Science,
Prof. R. K. Pandey


repeated loading.




What you learn?

case.

Text books
book)
this book)
Attendance policy


30% marks.

Evaluation scheme

______________________________________
100 Marks
______________________________________

Dr. R. K. Pandey
Professor
Note: If you are not able to meet coordinator in his office and
have urgency to meet, please send an e-mail for the
appointment or for getting the response of your query
through e-mail itself.
Part-4
11
Fatigue Failure Theories
(Dynamic failure theories)
R. K. Pandey, Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Delhi, India
Summary of the topics covered
till date:
• Background, Procedure of design,
Material selection, Factor of safety
• Stresses arising due to simple and
combined static loadings on machine
components
• Static failure theories (MSST, DET, MNST)
• Diving board, Screw jack, Wall crane
• Fasteners: Turn-buckle
Dynamic/ variable/ alternating loading
and its consequences:
• Take a piece (small length) of
aluminum/steel wire and load it in
transverse direction by bending. It
will sustain significant load.
• Now bend it by applying reversal
loads. You may notice its failure even
at much less magnitude of the load.
• Why it is so?
Many mechanical systems are subjected
to variable/alternate loading/stress
Loadings on mechanical systems

Loadings on ship structure
Failures of Liberty ships
Liberty ships were cargo ships built in
the United States during World War
II. Though concepts of ship were
developed in UK, and same were
adapted by the US. Using the concept ,
it was economical and quick to build
the ship.
Eighteen American shipyards built
2,710 Liberty ships between 1941
and 1945, easily the largest
number of ships produced to a
single design. These ships were
meant for carrying cargo to Britain
and USSR via other nations.
Photographic view of Liberty ship
Failure of Liberty ship
A view of a
Liberty
ship after
failure.
Cause (s) of Liberty ships’ failure
Loading/stress on commercial aircraft
28 April 1988.
28 April 1988.
Note the crack in bridge (as if death is
waiting)
Many machine parts (axle, shaft,
crankshaft, connecting rod, spring,
gear teeth etc.) are subjected to
variable loads (or alternating loads,
or time varying loads).
What are variable loads or alternating
loads or time varying loads?
Fully reversed loading
Repeated loading
Fluctuating loading General case of loading

Complete reversal, Repeated, Fluctuating
30
• With time varying stresses,
failures typically occur at stress
levels significantly lower than the
yield strength of materials.
• Thus, using only static failure

theories can lead to unsafe
designs when the loads are
dynamic/varying.
Fatigue failures : an overview
 This phenomenon was first noticed in

UK when railroad-car axles
began failing after only limited time in
service.
 These axles were made of ductile steel

but exhibited sudden or brittle like
failures.
Rankine (1843) published a paper
“On causes of unexpected
breakage of railways axles” in
which the author postulated that
the material has “Crystallized”
and become brittle due to the
fluctuating stress.
Dynamic loads were then ( in
1800s) a new phenomenon
resulting from the introduction
of steam powered machinery.
A. Wohler ( a German engineer)
made the first scientific
investigation into fatigue failure
by testing axles to failure in the
laboratory under fully revered
loading.
Wohler identified the number of
cycles of time varying stress as the
culprit and found the existence of
an endurance limit for steels.
Endurance limit: Stress level
would be tolerable for 106/107 of
cycles of fully reversed stress.
Wohler’s S-N diagram ( Ferrous
alloy):
Log-Log plot of S-N curve for wrought steel
Low cycle fatigue (LCF) and High cycle fatigue (HCF)
“Fatigue” word first used by a researcher
in 1839. That time mechanism of failure
was not understood.
Brittle appearance of the failure surface

in a ductile material caused speculation
that material had somehow become
“tired” and “embrittled” from load
oscillations.
Refer Table 6.1 for chronological
development on Fatigue, Page
320 of the main text book i.e.
(R. L. Norton, Machine Design-

An Integrated Approach,
Pearson Asia)
Mechanism of Fatigue Failure
1. Crack initiation (short duration)

2. Crack propagation (most of the
life of part)
3. Sudden fracture due to unstable
crack growth (instantaneous)
Stage-I:Crack initiation (short duration)
Stress raiser/notch:
 Collection of particles,
inclusions
 Stress at the notch
oscillate
 Local yielding occurs
due to stress
concentration which
creates distortion and
slip planes.
Stage-II: Crack Propagation
Once a micro crack
is established,
mechanism of
fracture mechanics
become
operational.
i.e. opening and
closing of crack.
Stage-III: Sudden fracture
Crack will
continue to
grow as long as
cyclic tensile
stress is
present.
Measuring fatigue failure strength
Rotating
beam test
Experimental setup of R. R. Moore

(Speed=1725 rpm, Dia=7.62 mm)
Pull-Pull load or Pull-Push Load
Low cycle
fatigue, LCF
(i.e. high
stress)
High cycle
fatigue, HCF
(i.e. low
stress)
Unidirectional bending (LCF and
HCF) (Pull-Pull)
Reversed bending (LCF, HCF)
Rotational bending (LCF, HCF)
Fatigue Failure Models/Theories
1. Stress life (S-N) approach

2. Strain life (-N) approach
3. Linear elastic fracture mechanics
In this course, we will

use S-N approach only.
Any of stress waveform can be characterized by the
following parameters:
Mean component:
 m  ( max   min ) / 2
Alternating component:
 a  ( max   min ) / 2
Stress ratio(R)   min /  max

Amplitude ratio(A)   a /  m
Stress range( )   max   min
Alternating
stress
Fluctuating stress
Effect of mean stress on the fatigue life
Endurance limit ( S e' )
Knee in S-N diagram defines an

endurance limit ( S ) for the material.
e'
This is stress level below which it can

be cycled infinitely without failure.
'
Endurance strength (S )
f
(Or Fatigue strength)
Fatigue strength is general term, it can

be defined at any N.
Estimating theoretical endurance limit ( Se )
'
fatigue strength (S ) :
f'
Steels:
Irons:
Alumin-
ums:
Copper
alloys:
Correction Factors for Theoretical
Fatigue Strength or Endurance Limit
Se  Cload * Csize * Csurf * Ctemp * Creliab * S'

e
S f  Cload * Csize * Csurf * Ctemp * Creliab * S '

f
Load factor (Cload):
For case of bending:

Cload  1.0
For case of torsion:
Cload  1.0
For case of axial loading:
Cload  0.7
Size factor (Csize):
(I). For d  8 mm, Csize  1.0

(II). For 8mm  d  250 mm:
0.097
Csize  1.189d
(III). For larger sizes , Csize  0.6

Size factor
Equivalent diameter for any
cross section:
Surface
factor,
Csurf
Surface factor (Csurf)
Temperature factor (Ctemp):
Reliability factor (Creliab):
Calculation of corrected S-N diagram:
For bending: Sm=0.9 Sut

For axial loading: Sm=0.75 Sut
Example-1
Create an estimated S-N diagram for a hot
rolled finish steel square bar (150x150
mm) by developing its equation. How
many cycles of life can be expected if the
alternating stress is 100 MPa. Assume
loading type as fully reversed bending.
Operating temperature is 5000C and
ultimate strength is 600 MPa. Assume
reliability factor of 99.9%.
Step-1
No endurance limit or fatigue

strength information is given, thus:
Se'  0.5Sut  0.5*600  300MPa

Step-2
Loading is bending, thus:
Cload  1.0
Step-3
The part is not round, thus:
Step-4
Surface factor is read from the graph:
Csurf = 0.584
Step-5
Temperature factor
Step-6
Reliability factor from table:
Step-7
Corrected endurance limit
Step-8
Estimate strength Sm at 103 cycles:
Step-9
Estimate a and b:
S-N diagram (Life at 100 MPa)
Example-2: Design the driving shaft as
per ASME code if the maximum output
of engine is 35kW at the vehicle speed of
85 km/h. The transmission system is
above (300 inclined with vertical) and
forward of the driving shaft.
Hints:
ASME code is used for design of shafts
normally acted upon by gradual and sudden
loads. Hence suitable load factors (bending and
torsion factors) are used with bending moment
and torsion.
Load gradually applied: kb=1.5, kt=1.0
Load suddenly applied (minor shock): kb=1.5-
2.0, kt=1.0-1.5
Load suddenly applied (heavy shock): kb=2-3,
kt=1.5- 3.
Allowable design stress max = 0.30Syt (without
keyway), Allowable design stress max = 0.18Sut
(without keyway) [These relations nicely hold
for commercial/purchased steels].
Use lesser value of allowable design stress,

max, achieved from above two relations. In
ASME code FOS is not used.
If keyways are present, max values are to be

reduced by 25%.
Stress concentration due to notch
All the discussion of stress

distribution within loaded
members has, up to now,
assumed that the members’ cross
sections were uniform
throughout.
What is a notch?
A notch can be a hole, a groove, a fillet,
an abrupt change in cross section, or
any disruption to the smooth contours
of a part.
Kt, Kts =Geometrical stress
concentration factor (also called static
stress concentration factor) for normal
stress and shear stress, respectively.
Notch sensitivity (q):
Notch sensitivity (q) is defined for
various materials and used to modify
the geometric stress concentration
factors Kt and Kts for a given material
under dynamic loading.
Determination of geometric stress
concentration factors (Kt and Kts)
Designing to avoid stress concentrations
1. Avoid abrupt
and/or large
magnitude
change in cross-
section.
2. Avoid sharp
corners
Force
Flow
Analogy
Fatigue stress concentration factor (Kf):
Notch sensitivity:
Materials have different sensitivity to
stress concentrations.
More the ductile material, less the notch

sensitive.
As per Peterson the notch sensitivity is:
Kt= Static stress concentration factor

Kf= Dynamic stress concentration factor
1. Determine Kt for particular
geometry and loading
2. Establish notch sensitivity
3. Find Kf
Determination of Fatigue stress
concentration factors
A rectangular stepped bar similar to that shown
in following figure is to be loaded in bending.
Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor
for the given dimensions.
Ex: Design of a Cantilever Bracket
for Fully Reversed Bending
A feed roll assembly is to be mounted at each end
on support brackets cantilevered from the machine
frame as shown in the associated figure. The feed
roll experiences a fully reversed load of 1000 lb
amplitude, split equally between the two support
brackets. Design a cantilever bracket to support a
fully reversed bending load of 500 lb amplitude for
1E9 cycles with no failure. Its dynamic deflection
can not exceed 0.01 in.
… continued design of a cantilever bracket for Fully Reversed Bending
The load time function shape is shown

in figure. The operating environment is
room air at a maximum temperature of
120 degree F. The space available
allows a maximum cantilever length of
6 in.
essentially rigid plates or bolted at its root.
The normal load will be applied at the
effective tip of the cantilever beam from a rod
attached through a small hole in the beam.
Since the bending moment is effectively zero
at the beam tip, the stress concentration from
this hole can be ignored.
Step-I
Tentative part geometry design
Step-II
Find/assume (if not given) trial

dimensions for b, d, D ,r , a,
and l.
Step-III
Step-IV
(Read from
graph)
Step-V
Read from graph:

Step-VI
Step-VII
Step-VIII
Step-IX
Step-X
Design fails with a factor

safety of less than one. Thus,
iterations are needed by
changing any of dimensions,
materials etc.
Various Failure
Lines/Curves for
Fluctuating Stresses
When a machine component is
subjected to fluctuating stresses, it
experiences following components of
stresses:
1. Mean stress
2. Alternating stress
1. When alternating stress is zero, the load
is purely static and criterion of failure is
Syt or Sut.
2. When mean stress is zero, the stress is
completely reversing and the criterion
of failure is the endurance limit.
3. When the machine component is
subjected to both components of stress,
failure occurs at different scattered
points shown in the following figure.
Goodman line is widely used as the
criterion of fatigue failure when
machine component is subjected to
mean stress as well as alternating
stress.
Machine components, which are subjected
to fluctuating stresses are designed using
modified Goodman line criteria:
Design steps of machine components
subjected to fluctuating stresses
Step-1:
Determine the number of cycles of

loading (N) that part will experience
over its expected service life.
Step-2:
Determine the amplitude of the

applied alternating loads (mean to
peak) and of the mean load.
Step-3:
Design the components with static
loadings for creating tentative
geometries.
Step-4:
Determine geometric stress
concentration factors (Kt) at notches.
Step-5:
Convert the geometric stress
concentration factors (Kt) to fatigue
concentration factors (Kf) using the
materials’ q.
Step-6:
Calculate the alternating tensile stress
amplitudes at critical locations in the
part.
Calculate the nominal mean stress

amplitude at the same critical location
and increase them with mean fatigue
stress-concentration factors.
Step-7:
Calculate the principal stress and

von-Mises stress amplitudes for
the critical location based on their
states of applied stress. Do this
separately for the mean and
alternating stress components.
Step-8:
Choose a tentative material for the

part and determine its properties
of interest such as Sut, Sy, Se, Sf, q
etc.
Step-9:
Determine appropriate fatigue

strength modification factors for
the type of loading, size of part,
surface, etc.
Step-10:
Define the corrected Se (or Sf).

Create a modified-Goodman line
diagram using the material’s
corrected fatigue strength. Write
equations for the Goodman line
and yield line.
Step-11:
Plot the mean and alternating von

Mises stresses on the modified-
Goodman line diagram and
calculate a safety factor for the
design.
Step-12:
Iteration is required to refine the

design. Any subset of steps can be
repeated as many times as
necessary to obtain an acceptable
design.
Relation between ‘Kf’ and ‘Kfm’
Example:
A feed roll assembly is to be mounted at
its ends on support brackets cantilevered
from the machine frame as shown in
associated figure. The feed roll
experience a total fluctuating load that
varies from a minimum of 200 lb to a
maximum of 2200 lb, split equally
between the two support brackets.
Design a cantilever bracket to support a
fluctuating bending load of 100 lb to
1100 lb amplitude for 1E9 cycles with
no failure. Dynamic deflection of
cantilever should not exceed 0.02 in.
The operating environment is room air
at 120 degree F. Length of cantilever is
6 in.
essentially rigid plates bolted at its root.
Normal load is applied at the tip of
cantilever beam from a rod attached in
the hole. Stress concentration due to
hole may be ignored.
Step-1:
Very few data are given except for the

loading on the device, some
limitations on size, and the required
cycle life. Thus, there is need to do
some assumptions about material,
geometry etc.
Material: SAE 1040,
Sut= 80kpsi, Syt= 60kpsi
Geometry: b= 2 in, d=1 in, D=1.125

in, r= 0.5 in, l=6 in
Step-2: Determination of loads
Step-3: Determination of Kt
Read from graph.
Step-4: Determination of ‘Kf’
(Read from graph)

Step-5: Local mean and alternating
notch stresses
Step-6 von-Mises stress amplitudes
for the critical location
Step-7: Determine Se, q etc.
Step-8 Creation of modified-
Goodman line diagram
Step-9 Iterations
With taken data:

Nf3=1.9,
ymax=0.012 in
Required ymax=0.005 in
Thus, increase the part cross-section
and do iterations.
Another example:
The associated figure shows a

counter shaft mounted on which two
spur gears and bearings are mounted.
Loads on the shaft are shown.
Design appropriate diameters for
each section of the shaft. Assume
minimum safety factor 1.5.
W23(tan.)=2400 N, W54 (tan.)=-10800 N
W23 (rad.)=-870 N, W54 (rad.)=-3900 N
RAz= 422 N
RAy=1439 N
RBz=8822 N
RBy=3331 N
Torque=360 N.m
Start with point I:
At point I the bending moment is

high. There is stress concentration at
the shoulder. Torque is also present.
M=468 N.m T= 360 N.m

Assume generous fillet radius for gear at I:
Estimated Kt= 1.7, Kts=1.5
Assuming Kf=Kt, Kfs=Kts
Assuming material Steel 1020 CD:

Sut= 469 MPa
Computed Se= 186 MPa

For first estimate of the small
diameter at the shoulder at point I,
using the GM criterion:
All estimates have probably been
conservative. Thus, selecting
standard size of shaft i.e. d=42 mm.
A typical D/d ratio for support at the

shoulder is D/d=1.2. Thus,
D=1.2x42= 50.4 mm. Using D= 50
mm.
Kt=1.6 [Assuming r=d/10=4
mm, r/d= 0.1]
q=0.82
Kf=1.49
Kts=1.35, qs= 0.95
Kfs=1.33
Se=173 MPa
Thank you for
kind attention

Screw Jack (Design Methodology)
Design a screw jack to carry a 1000 kN through height 50 cm.
2
1
(a) Jack assembly (b) Types of bearing cups

Fig. 1 Screw Jack
Is there any connection between  and d? Does not seem.
The above design problem statement necessarily might not be available and the designer
might have to figure out or a statement like the one above is made available by the client
or the supervisor where you are working. If it is a totally new product the designer might
have to decide the specifications: Constraints and Criteria. The constraint might be the
‘Lifting Height’ stated as 0.5 m and/or the load to be carried etc. The criteria may be the
cost or weight or both or any other decided by the designer.
The load 1000 kN might be too high and this the designer will know after the power
screw diameter is found to be too large to be practical and power screw is unsuitable.
1
Screw Jack - Summary of Design Procedure
1. Find core diameter of the power screw on the basis of compression or tension
only.
2. Select the standard (preferred size) outer diameter, core diameter and pitch of the
threads.
3. Find the torsional moment to be transmitted by the nut and screw.
4. Find bending moment if existing.
5. Put direct stress (and bending stress if present) and torsional shear stress and do
Design Check using DET equation for σ.
6. Check for safety from buckling of power screw.
7. Find nut height using bearing pressure. Also find the other dimensions.
8. Find length of handle by equating torque to lift or lower load (whichever is
higher) and torque applied at the end of the handle such that:
Ttotal = T + Tc = F × L
Power screw design
Step 1. Configuration
Square or ACME?
Screw: Circular diameter d (outer thread diameter) and d1 (minimum thread
diameter) and height (Lifting Height + H + h + …)
Step 2. Input(s)
(i) Estimate loads for screw

1. Axial load, W (compressive or tensile)
2. Torque by force at handle end
3. Assume factors of safety
4. Does bending moment (BM) exist? To answer this, consider the worst
loading situation for the power screw.
2
5. At handle end: with single hand: about 200 N applied; with both hands:
about 400N applied, and if hammer used, it will be 4 to 5 times more (not
recommended).
(ii) Wear of Screw
(Tables 1 to 3 supplied for coefficient of friction to be referred).
Depends on material combination of screw and nut, relative speed and lubricated
or unlubricated to decide coefficient of friction information to be supplied (Table
2). Power screw may be made harder than the nut, so that nut wears out and
replaced, since it is just a bush and easy to replace. It is a sort of fuse (discussed
later).
Step 3. Output (s)

Should be economical and durable, i.e., no yielding failure of screw checked using DET
and assume life (say, 10 yrs., i.e., should not wear off). It should have tolerable wear to
serve its life. Making the power screw harder than the bush (which is the nut) will wear
the bush faster than the power screw. The bush can be replaced, it being much less costly
than the power screw.
Step 4. Material Selection

Screw: Material selection will depend on the need for machining operation and
the thread cutting requirement. Material selection depends also on the loading.
Here the type of loading is such that a ductile material is required and steel serves
the purpose well.
Step 5. Design equations

Screw-Combined loading (check for buckling later)
Combined loading is difficult to deal hence neglect and consider only one type of
loading with appropriate correction factors ZP or ZT or ZM as the case may be for
Design check method

Use FSM with Syt and FSS, FSG, FSFA, FSR, FSD FSEI with Axial Force (P),
Torque (T) and Moment (M).
Nd = NM .NS .NG .NF .NR .NE .ND .NEI (Note: FS & N)
3
Fig. 2
Considering only one type of loading, say, Axial Force (P) (Fig. 2), to calculate initial
estimate of screw diameter:
Syt or
Syc P x NM x NS x NG x NFA x NR x NE x ND x NEI x ZP
=
d 2core /4
Select FS values from (Table supplied) and decide Zp from 2-5. Hence core diameter
estimated. Take preferred size.
Design Check: Substitute preferred size in DET for this, calculate torque (to raise or
lower?). Collar friction may or may not be incorporated initially and later introduced.
Nut Design (Nut and Collar both integral)
Nut: Circular-diameter D (collar diameter D1) and height H (collar height a)
Step 2. Input(s)
Subjected to:
a) Bearing pressure on nut portion (to take care of wear)
4
b) Shearing stress in nut portion
c) Shearing of collar portion of nut
d) Crushing of the collar of the nut
e) Tearing of the nut
Step 3. Output (s)

Should be economical and durable, i.e., no yielding failure of screw, handle, frame, etc.,
using DET and assume life (say, 10 yrs., i.e., should not wear off). It should have
tolerable wear to serve its life. Handle should fail before others components or should it
be the bush which is the nut.

 Based on loading, processing and material combination of screw and nut.
 Nut is a separate bush as seen in the Screw Jack figure provided and therefore can
be of different material than the power screw. It can be softer than screw for low
friction and replacement. If it was not separate, it would be part of the frame and
hence of same material as the frame. One has then to decide if power screw is
softer or harder than the frame and hence the nut depending on which will be
cheaper to replace.
 Find Syt of bush material or Syc as required. Should use Sb the bearing pressure
for the nut screw material combination from chart provided.
Step 5. Design equation(s)
The various design equations necessary for design of the nut are discussed.
(b) Force flow – nut to screw and screw to nut
5
The LOAD should be along the axis
(a) Interaction of threads
(c) Developed threads
Fig. 3 Bearing Action
Figure 3 (a) and (b) shows engagement of nut and screw to show bearing action as threads
bear against each other due to load, and bearing pressure is developed. This is critical to
design of screw and nut because this causes wear of threads. Loads act as shown.
The threads of screw may shear at core (root) diameter, while threads of nut shear at
major diameter due to axial load. The load as shown is assumed uniformly distributed is
contact otherwise it is very complicated (Fig. 3(c)).
Bearing Pressure: Can cause stress of different kind on the nut and the screw i.e., it may
be tensile on screw and compressive on nut as shown.
(a) (b)
6
Fig. 4
Assuming uniform bearing pressure simplifies the design.

Based on uniform distribution of bearing pressure over the threads yields:
Sb Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
NM = Projected Area
Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
=
(do 2 dc 2) n
=
dm h n
=
2 rm h n
From above equation, knowing value of bearing strength Sb (Table 1 – which will
obviously give the value based on the softer material in the combination) between the
material combination of the power screw and the nut threads, the number. of threads (n)
required for the thread engagement of screw and nut to prevent failure of the threads, may
be obtained such that:
n ≥
(/do2dc2) (Sb /NM)
Or, Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
n ≥
dm h (Sb /NM)
This allows calculation of number of threads and hence height of nut, since n = H / pitch
Or, H = n × pitch
Note:
do = outside diameter
di = inside or core diameter of thread
dm = mean diameter of screw
h = depth of thread
= Pitch / 2
n = number of threads in contact
= height of nut / pitch of thread
= H / pitch
H = total height of nut
7
Also,
do2 – dc2 do + dc do – dc
=
4 2 2
= (dm) (h); since h = r0 – rc
= (dm) (pitch/2)
Shearing of threads: To find the width ‘e’ (i.e., ‘e’ in figures of threads provided with
the standard sizes of threads to choose from Tables 5-7) of the thread.
Assuming shearing of thread occurs at radius rm, since point Load assumed to act at rm.
σs (screw) = σs (nut)
Or,
Sys Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
=
NM 2 rm e n
This allows ‘e’ to be found. For design to be safe from failure due to shearing of the
threads, the ‘e’ found should be less than ‘e’ given in the Tables 5-7 for threads - Fine,
Normal or Coarse, depending on which ‘Series’ was selected for the design.
Outer diameter of nut D1:
Fig. 5 Nut dimensions
8
To determine minimum value of outside diameter D1 check nut in tension or compression
as the case may be and for twisting moment due to torsion considering initially only
tension or compression to follow the Design Check Method.
Syt Syc Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI

or =
NM NM  (D1 – d0) /4
Here, d0 known from screw size (designed earlier), allows obtaining initial estimate of
D1, which can then be finalized by Design Check Method by considering even Torque,
simultaneously in the Design Equation.
However, some designers prefer to select D1 empirically ≥ 2d0 and then check whether it
is safe and usually it is found safe.
As the nut is also subjected to torsion and one requires considering whether failure due to
torsional shear also occurs. In fact due to the presence of tensile or compressive loading
along with torsion requires the Distortion Energy theory to be used to check for failure.
i.e., ' √xyxy

Tr T (d o / 2)
Where,  xy  
J ( / 32)( D 4  d o4 )
1
One can therefore use the Design Check Method as stated above, after obtaining initial
estimate of diameter D1 from consideration of either only the axial loading or only torsion
and using the correction factor ZP or ZT respectively. Here the initial estimate D1 is based
on only axial loading; hence correction factor ZP is used.
Having calculated Torque find:
τxy = (16 T x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI )

d2core
Use DET: first find σ' and then Ni = Syt / σ'

Where, Ni is incorporated factor of safety.
Also,
Nd = NM ×Ns × NG ×NF × NR × NE × ND × NEI
And check whether Ni / Nd is in between 1 to 1.25, otherwise iterate unless impossible to
change material or size.
This above approach is applicable for the case of a Screw Jack with a separate replaceable
bush. However in the case of the Clamp which is being designed as part of the design
9
exercise, this approach is not applicable as the bush is not separate from the bush but
integral with the frame.
The xy to which the bush portion is subjected to because of the interaction (meshing)
with the screw threads of the Power Screw is the same xy to which the Power Screw is
subjected and was calculated earlier.
Collar Outer Size D2:
Fig. 6 Collar dimensions

A nut may be integral with the frame or it may be a separate bush, force fitted. If it is a
separate bush, then usually it is of a relatively softer material allowing it to wear faster
than the screw so that it can be replaced instead of the relatively costly screw. Threads are
cut in the collar to receive the screw. If it is a separate bush then it has to be held in place
by a set screw. The collar portion of nut will bear the whole load when the load rests on
it. It may even be crushed or sheared.
Crushing:
Consider crushing of collar portion of nut.
Hence,
 (Syc) 4 x Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
=
NM (D22 – D12)
Or,

 (D22 – D12) (Syc / NM) = Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
10
This allows D2 to be calculated.
Shearing:
Consider shearing of the nut.

Hence,
Load × Ns × NG × NF × NR × NE = π D1 × a × (Sys / NM)
Where, Sys = 0.577 Syt as per DET;

and, Sys = 0.5 Syt as per MSST;
Since only DET will be followed, Sys = 0.577 Syt.
Tearing:
Fig. 7 Tearing mode of failure
From Fig. 7,
(Syc) Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
=
NM (D12 – d02)
Or,
 (D12 – d02) (Syc / NM) = Load x NS x NG x NF x NR x NE x ND x NEI
11
Tearing results if section is very thin.
Design of Handle
Handle: Circular diameter dp and length Lp
Step 2. Input(s) - Estimate loads for the Handle

Handle subjected to:
At handle end about 200 N (maximum) can be applied if single hand used, as per
ergonomics data and about 400N (maximum) can be applied if both hands used. If a
hammer is used this load can it can be 4 to 5 times more (not recommended necessarily).
The amount of force applicable at the end of the handle dictates the load which can be
raised by the power screw for a certain handle length. One might tend to raise heavier
loads by putting a long hollow pipe on the handle, thereby providing for mechanical
advantage. However if this is done, the question is whether the power screw will sustain it
if it is not designed for the higher load, depending on the design factor of safety Nd decide
in advance.
Step 3. Output (s)

Should be economical and durable, i.e., no yielding failure of handle, using DET and
assume life (say, 10 yrs.) The handle may be considered for this product – screw jack as a
fuse (Fuse Concept: Ni / Nd lowest for the handle and it should fail before others
components) or should it be the nut which is the bush.

Handle: Is any special machining required
Step 5. Design Equation

 Total torque is Tt = T + Tc
 Where torque Tt is applied manually to raise or lower - whichever is higher should
be adopted for design, as this is will then be the safe value for both raising or
lowering.
 Hence,
 Tt = Human Effort × Length of handle
 Therefore length found if human effort known (human effort discussed under
 Step 3 - Inputs.
12
 Choose material (CD or HR?).
 Hence knowing Syt for material chosen, estimate diameter based on loading.
 The handle can fail due to Pure Shear also. Imagine the final human effort at the
end of the handle may cause shear failure at the other end held in the head of the
power screw. This type of failure might not be critical in the case of a Screw Jack
but would be important to check for the case of a Screw Clamp, for example.
 Finally check for Buckling of screw to know that the power screw will not fail in
buckling, for the dimensions designed.
Design of Cup
Is it of Steel or CI?
Since cup size is more than Power Screw diameter, it will be safe if made of same
material as the Power Screw and no deign required, since size and configuration will be
dictated by the way it has to support the load. If only subjected to compressive load, then
even Cast Iron is suitable, but size has to be checked for safety from failure. However,
Cast Iron will make it heavy.
Design of Frame
Depends on type of loading and processing. Selection of processing also depends on
number of pieces required. However the detail design is not dealt with here.
Screw Jack - Summary of Design Procedure

9. Find core diameter of the power screw on the basis of compression or tension
only.
10. Select the standard (preferred size) outer diameter, core diameter and pitch of the
threads.
11. Find the torsional moment to be transmitted by the nut and screw.
12. Find bending moment if existing.
13. Put direct stress (and bending stress if present) and torsional shear stress and do
Design Check using DET equation for σ.
14. Check for safety from buckling of power screw.
15. Find nut height using bearing pressure. Also find the other dimensions.
16. Find length of handle by equating torque to lift or lower load (whichever is
higher) and torque applied at the end of the handle such that:
Ttotal = T + Tc = F × L
Where T is torque to raise or lower load as the case may be, Tc is friction torque due to
collar and F is force applied by hand (200-400 N, at Lp the length of the handle).
13
Table 1 Limiting values of bearing pressure Sbrg between screw and nut of power
screw (source in fps units: H. A. Rothbart, Mechanical design and systems Handbook, 2nd
edition McGraw Hill, New York 1985)
Application of Materials Screw Safe bearing Rubbing speed

Power screw and Nut pressure, Sbrg
(N/mm2)
1. Hand Press Steel screw 17-24 Low speed lubricated
Bronze nut 2500-3500 psi
2. Screw jack Steel screw 12-17 Low speed < 2.5m/min
C.I. nut 1800-2500 psi (8 fpm)
Steel screw Bronze 11-17 Low speed<3m/min
nut 1600-2500 psi (10 fpm)
3.Hoisting Steel screw C.I. 4-7 Med. speed 6-12m/min
screw nut
600-1000 psi (20-40 fpm)
Steel screw 5-10 Med. speed 6-12m/min
Bronze nut
800-1400 psi (20-40 fpm)
4. Lead screw Steel Bronze 1-1.5 High speed>15m/min
150-240 psi (50 fpm)
Table 2 Limiting values of Coefficient of Friction (µ) between threads of power

screw and nut (source – same as above)
Screw Material Nut Material
Steel Brass Bronze Cast Iron
Steel Dry 0.15- 0.25 0.15-0.23 0.15-0.19 0.15-0.25
Steel, Machine 0.11-0.17 0.10-0.16 0.10-0.15 0.11-0.17
oil
Bronze 0.08-0.12 0.04-0.06 ----------- 0.06-0.09
Table 3 Representative values of collar Friction (µc) (Source -same as above)

Material combination Running µc Starting µc
Soft steel on C.I. 0.12 0.17

Hardened steel on C.I. 0.09 0.14
Soft steel on bronze 0.08 0.10

Hardened steel on bronze 0.06 0.08
14
Table 4 Calculation of Tc
Initially Tc may be neglected. It is included later when screw diameter found and total
torque Ttotal obtained later with inclusion of Tc.
1 2 3
Fig. (b)
Fig. (a) Friction in conical region. Set Fig. (c)
screw only to prevent cup
‘d’ is the reduced diameter to from being removed and still Screw provided to prevent
accommodate ball bearing. D is the have relative motion with accidental removal of cup and
diameter to accommodate handle in respect to screw so as to not to provide relative motion
the 'head' portion of the screw and rotate with the screw. Here if between the cup and screw
'D' can be 1.25 to 1.5 or even 2 simple method same equations as in case
times screw diameter, based on used then application i.e.,
need. Even D can empirically be ≈ Pc Dc
Tc = 2 D+d
2d. Pc Dc Dc =
Hence, Tc = 2 2
( Dc shown)
D+d More accurate Other configurations are
Where, Dc = Same as for Fig.(a) case.
( Simple method)
2 Pc (D3 – d3)
Tc = 3 sin (D2 – d2) Take c from Table 3.
More accurate: (Uniform pressure theory)
Pc (D3 – d3) Pc (D + d)
Tc =
(D2– d2) Tc =
4sin
(Uniform pressure theory) (Uniform wear theory)
(See clutch and brake chapter) Tc= Tc1+Tc2
P c (D + d) Where, Tc1 for cone portion
Tc = and Tc2 for flat portion
4
(Uniform wear theory)
(See clutch and brake chapter of
design book or kinematics/
dynamics book).
For ball bearings c is very small;
c = 0.005 to 0.0001. Some even
take c = 0 for ball bearings for
collar friction calculation.
15
Fig. 8 Detailed representation of square thread (modified)
Fig. 9 Detailed representation of square Fig. 10 Detailed representation of ACME

thread (internal) thread (internal)
Fig. 11 Single start and Multiple start threads
16
Table 5 Basic Dimensions For Square Threads Fine Series
All dimensions are in mm
Fig. 12
Major Major Minor Pitch Area of

bolt nut Dia. core
diameter diameter mm2
d D d1 P e r h2 b h1 a H
10 10.5 8 50.3
12 12.5 10 78.5
14 14.5 12 113
16 16.5 14 2 1 0.12 0.75 0.25 1 0.25 1.25 154
18 18.5 16 201
20 20.5 18 254
22 22.5 19 284
24 24.5 21 346
26 26.5 23 415
28 28.5 25 491
30 30.5 27 573
32 32.5 29 661
(34) (34.5) 31 755
36 36.5 33 855
(38) (38.5) 35 962
40 40.5 37 1075
42 42.5 39 3 1.5 0.12 1.25 0.25 1.5 0.25 1.75 1195
44 44.5 41 1320
(46) (46.5) 43 1452
48 48.5 45 1590
50 50.5 47 1735
52 52.5 49 1886
55 55.5 52 2124
(58) (58.5) 55 2376
60 60.5 57 2552
(62) (62.5) 59 2734
17
Table 5 Basic Dimensions For Square Threads Fine Series (continued)
Nom Major Major Minor Pitch Area
Dia. Dia. Dia. Dia. of
Bolt Nut core
D D d1 P e r H2 b h1 a H mm2
65 65 65.5 61 2922
(68) (68) (68.5) 64 3217
70 70 70.5 66 3421
(72) (72) (72.5) 68 3632
75 75 75.5 71 3959
(78) (78) (78.5) 74 4301
80 80 80.5 76 4536
(82) (82) (82.5) 78 4778
85 85 85.5 81 4 2 0.12 1.75 0.25 2 0.25 2.25 5153
(88) (88) (88.5) 84 5542
90 90 90.5 86 5809
(92) (92) (92.5) 88 6082
95 95 95.5 91 6504
(98) (98) (98.5) 94 6940
100 100 100.5 96 7238
(105) (105) (105.5) 101 8012
110 110 110.5 106 8835
(115) (115) (115.5) 109 9331
120 120 120.5 114 10207
(125) (125) (125.5) 119 11122
130 130 130.5 124 6 3 0.25 2.5 0.5 3 0.25 3.25 12076
(135) (135) (135.5) 129 13070
140 140 140.5 134 14103
(145) (145) (145.5) 139 15175
150 150 150.5 144 16286
Note: Diameters indicated within brackets are of secondary preference.

IS: 4694-1968
18
Table 6 Basic Dimensions For Square Threads Normal Series

Bolt Nut core
d D d1 P e r h2 b h1 a H mm2
22 22 22.5 17 227
24 24 24.5 19 284
26 26 26.5 21 5 2.5 0.25 2 0.5 2.5 0.25 2.75 346
28 28 28.5 23 415
30 30 30.5 24 452
32 32 32.5 26 531
(34) 34 34.5 28 6 3 0.25 2.5 0.5 3 0.25 3.25 616
36 36 36.5 30 707
(38) 38 38.5 31 755

40 40 40.5 33 855
(42) 42 42.5 35 7 3.5 0.25 3 0.5 3.5 0.25 3.75 962
44 44 44.5 37 1075
(46) 46 46.5 38 1134

48 48 48.5 40 1257
50 50 50.5 42 8 4 0.25 3.5 0.5 4 0.25 4.25 1385
52 52 52.5 44 1521
55 55 55.5 46 1662
(58) 58 58.5 49 1886
60 60 60.5 51 9 4.5 0.25 4 0.5 4.5 0.25 4.75 2043
(62) 62 62.5 53 2206
65 65 65.5 55 2376
(68) 68 68.5 58 2642
70 70 70.5 60 2827
(72) 72 72.5 62 3019
75 75 75.5 65 10 5 0.25 4.5 0.5 5 0.25 5.25 3318
(78) 78 78.5 68 3632
80 80 80.5 70 3848
(82) 82 82.5 72 4072
19
Table 6 Basic Dimensions For Square Threads – Normal Series (continued)

Bolt Nut core
D D d1 P e r h2 b h1 A H mm2
85 85 85.5 73 4185
(88) 88 88.5 76 4536
90 90 90.5 88 4778
(92) 92 92.5 80 5027
95 95 95.5 83 12 6 0.25 5.5 0.5 6 0.25 6.25 5411
(98) 98 98.5 86 5809
100 100 100.5 88 6082
(105) 105 105.5 93 6793
110 110 110.5 98 7543
(115) 115 116 101 8012

120 120 121 106 8825
(125) 125 126 111 9677
130 130 131 116 14 7 0.5 6 1 7 0.5 7.5 10568
(135) 135 136 121 11499
140 140 141 126 12469
(145) 145 146 131 13478
150 150 151 134 16 8 0.5 7 1 8 0.5 8.5 14103
20
Table 7 Basic Dimensions for Square Threads Coarse Series

Bolt Nut core
d D d1 P e r h2 b h1 a H mm2
22 22 22.5 14 164
24 24 24.5 16 201
26 26 26.5 18 8 4 0.25 3.5 0.5 4 0.25 4.25 254
28 28 28.5 20 314
30 30 30.5 20 314
32 32 32.5 22 380
(34) 34 34.5 24 10 5 0.25 4.5 0.5 5 0.25 5.25 452
36 36 36.5 26 531
(38) 38 38.5 28 616
40 40 40.5 28 616
(42) 42 42.5 30 707
44 44 44.5 32 804
(46) 46 46.5 34 12 6 0.25 5.5 0.5 6 0.25 6.25 908
48 48 48.5 36 1018
50 50 50.5 38 1134
52 52 52.5 40 1257
55 55 56 41 1320
(58) 58 59 44 1521
60 60 61 46 14 7 0.5 6 1 7 0.5 7.5 1662
(62) 62 63 48 1810
65 65 66 49 16 8 0.5 7 1 8 0.5 8.5 1886
(68) 68 69 52 2124
70 70 71 54 2290
(72) 72 73 56 2463
75 75 76 59 16 8 0.5 7 1 9 0.5 8.5 2734
(78) 78 79 62 3019
80 80 81 64 3217
(82) 82 83 66
21
Table 7 Basic Dimensions For Square Threads – Coarse Series (continued)
Nominal Major Major Minor Pitch Area

Dia. Dia. Dia. Dia. Of
Bolt Nut Core
d D d1 P e r H2 b h1 a H mm2
85 85 86 67 3526
(88) 88 89 70 3848
90 90 91 72 18 9 0.5 8 1 9 0.5 9.5 4072
(92) 92 93 74 4301
95 95 96 77 4657
(98) 98 99 80 5027
100 100 101 80 5027

(105) 105 106 85 20 10 0.5 9 1 10 0.5 10.5 5675
110 110 111 90 6362
(115) 115 116 93 6793

120 120 121 98 22 11 0.5 10 1 11 0.5 11.5 7543
(125) 125 126 103 8332
130 130 131 108 9161
(135) 135 136 111 9677

140 140 141 116 24 12 0.5 11 1 12 0.5 12.5 10568
(145) 145 146 121 11499
150 150 151 126 12469
22

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MCL211L: Design of Machines

[Credit: 3 (L-T-P: 3-0-0)]

Prerequisite courses: Engineering Mechanics,

Syllabus (as per courses of study 2020-2021)

Synthesis of an assembly from machine components to

Case studies (like Gearbox driven by motor using belt

To determine size and shape of machine

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 J. E. Shigley et al., Mechanical Engineering

 R. L. Mott, Machine Elements in Mechanical

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1. (a)Introduction to Engineering Design.

6. Design of Machine Elements/

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D grade will be awarded to students at

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Minor Test (120 minutes test) : 20 Marks

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A design notebook should be

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Failed samples of brittle

Torsion Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a)

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(a) Ductile material (b) Brittle material

R. K. Pandey, Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg., IIT Delhi

•Direct axial stress: s = F/A

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Bending stress and shear stress in a beam in bending

Bending stress Shearing stress

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• Definition: Bearing stress is the

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• Note: bearing stress is

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Design Design Design Design

Engineering is art of directing the great

Science is an intellectual activity carried on

Engineers study human needs

To design is to imagine and

 The “things” may be procedure,

Babylonian doctrine (over 3000 years old):

Factor of safety is a factor introduced

 To reduce allowable strength/load

F = K.2 (Concentrated contacts

What is the incorporated Factor

Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

FSd = FSM  FSS  FSG  FSFA 

Dr. R. K. Pandey, Professor,

FSG = 1.0; tolerances are tight