BIOAVAILABILITAS

dan
MINERALS

Dr. Muhamad Firdaus

Department of Fish Product Technology

FACULTY OF FISHERIES AND MARINE SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF BRAWIJAYA
BIOAVAILABILITY
(what we get from what we have taken in)
 Biological Availability
(Bioavailability)

Definition can be based on either the percentage of a nutrient

ingested or the percentage of a nutrient absorbed that
becomes useful to the organism

The percentage ingested is preferred by some

because the percentage absorbed is difficult to
determine and relies on an indirect analysis

The percentage absorbed is, nonetheless, a more

accurate appraisal of bioavailability
The amount that gets absorbed depends on:

Extrinsic Factors Digestibility of the food source

ExtrinsicFactors
Solubility of the mineral

Elements in the food source that hinder or facilitate

absorption
With a focus on the organism, bioavailability depends on:

Intrinsic Age
IntrinsicFactors
Factors
Health
Nutritional state
Physiological state
Genetic predisposition
Gender
Developmental stage
Species
Food proteins: General overview.

Proteins: a major food macro-component.

Food is the major source providing proteins

to human body:

 food with animal origin

 food with vegetable origin

 Why do we need proteins?

Food proteins
Digestion

Amino acid mixture

New proteins Glycogen

Lipids
(re-synthesis)

Biologically Active
Compounds Energy
Hormones: insulin, (May provide up to 10-
serotonin and melatonin 15% of body’s energy
(tryptophan derived) need. )
 The amount of protein needed depends on:

Individual physiological features:

Sex
Age
Physical activity
Health status
Protein quality:

Amino acid composition/ratio

Protein digestibility
Protein quality: Amino acid composition
20 common amino acids composing proteins.

Non-essential amino acids (NE): body synthesize them.

Essential amino acids (E): be supplied by diet.

Conditionally essential amino acids: nonessential amino

acids that become essential under certain conditions.
For example Tyr (NE) is synthesized by Phe (E). If diet is
low in Phe then Tyr becomes conditionally essential.

The quality of a dietary protein is a measure of its

ability to provide the essential amino acids required for
tissue maintenance.
Essential amino acids

Valine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
 Complete proteins: contain an adequate
proportion of all the essential amino acids
that should be incorporated into a diet.

Proteins from animal sources (meat, poultry, milk, and

fish) have a high quality because they contain all the
essential amino acids in proportions similar to those
required for synthesis of human tissue proteins

[Note: Gelatin prepared from animal collagen is an

exception; it has a low biological value as a result of
deficiencies in several essential amino acids.]
Incomplete proteins: lack one or more
essential amino acids or contain them in
inadequate proportions necessary for human
metabolism.
Proteins from plant sources (wheat, corn, rice, and
beans) have a lower quality (except soy protein) than
do animal proteins. They are considered incomplete.
 Complementary proteins

Incomplete proteins from different

plant sources may be combined in
such a way that the result is equivalent
in nutritional value to animal protein.
Ile, Leu Lys Met Trp
Legumes x x
Cereals x x

Combined
Methods for evaluation of protein quality
1. Teoritis
Nilai biologis suatu protein dibatasi oleh proporsi
relatif asam amino esensial yang terkandung di
dalamnya
• Skor Asam Amino
Membandingkan kandungan AA antara bahan uji
dengan protein patokan (AA yg paling defisien)
• PDCAAS
(Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score )
Peringkat kualitas protein ditentukan dengan cara
membandingkan profil asam amino protein dari
makanan tertentu terhadap standar profil asam amino
1. Chemical methods

a. Amino Acid Scoring (AAS)

Amino acid scoring provides a way to predict how

efficiently protein will meet a person’s amino acid
needs.

This concept assumes that tissue protein synthesis

is limited unless all required amino acids are
available at the same time and in appropriate
amounts at the site of tissue protein synthesis.
Amino acid score calculation
Ratio of the amount of each essential amino acid (g/100g
protein) in a test protein and the amount of the respective
essential amino acid (g/100g protein) in an “ideal protein”
as defined by FAO/WHO.

Proposed “ideal protein” :

Whole egg protein

Milk protein

For example, if the lysine content of a whole-wheat flour protein is

2.6% and the value for lysine in an “ideal protein” is 5.1%,
AAS is calculated as 2.6/5.1x100 = 51.
The essential amino acid with the lowest AAS for certain
protein is called limiting amino acid.
 Drawbacks

 AAS is determined after acid hydrolyses of

proteins which results in total amino acid
content.

 Some of the amino acids in the total pool are

not bioavailable.

The degree of error varies depending on food:

o highly processed food has impaired

digestibility

o proteins with plant origin have lower

digestibility
b. Protein digestibility-corrected amino acid
score (PDCAAS)

Amino acid scoring does not take protein

digestibility into account. It is useful for
comparing animal products and refined foods
that are not excessively heated.

Plant foods are not completely digested, it is

necessary to make a correction to the
calculation of AAS.

PDCAAS = Protein digestibility x Amino acid score

J. Nutr. 2000, vol. 130 no. 7 1865S-1867S
 c. PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY

A measure of efficient utilization of a protein

Calculations:

where I = nitrogen intake

  F = fecal nitrogen output on the test diet
  Fk = fecal nitrogen output on a non-protein diet.
Protein Digestibility
Influenced by :
• Processing technique
• Anti-nutrition compound
• Reaction between protein and another
compound
Factors affecting protein digestibility

Indigenous anti-nutritional factors:

Glucosinolates (mustard and rapeseed)

Trypsin inhibitors and hemagglutinins (legumes)

Tannins (legumes and cereals)

Phytates (cereals and oilseeds)

Gossypol (cottonseed protein products.)

Effects of antinutritional factors on protein digestibility and

amino acid availability in foods J AOAC Int. 2005 May-
Jun;88(3):967-87.
Anti-nutritional factors formed during heat /
alkaline processing of protein containing food.

 Oxidized forms of sulfur amino acids,

 D-amino acids,

 Lysinoalanine (LAL – cross-linkage

between polypeptides).

 Maillard compounds,
2. Biological methods: Animal assays
a. Biological Value (BV)
b. Apparent Net Protein Utilization (NPU)
Defined as the percentage of ingested protein which
is deposited as tissue protein

Pb - the total body protein at the end of the feeding trial,

Pa - the total body protein at the beginning of the feeding trial,
Pi - the amount of protein consumed over the feeding trial.

In this calculation no allowance is made for endogenous

protein losses.

Representative sample of animals should be sacrificed at the

beginning and end of the feeding trial for carcass protein
analysis.
c. Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)

Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) is the gain in

weight of growing animals per gram of protein
eaten.

With this method no allowance is made for

maintenance: ie. method assumes that all
protein is used for growth
 3. Microbial methods
For determination of:

Total amino acids (after chemical hydrolysis)

Bioavailable amino acids

 Escherichia coli
Microorganisms used:

 Tetrahymena pyriformis
 Streptococcus zymogenes
Streptococcus zymogenes:
It does not require lysine and therefore, this amino acid
(neither total nor bioavailable) can not be determined.
Can hydrolyze protein with own enzymes but slowly.
Protein could be pre-treated with enzymes.

Tetrahymena pyriformis

It requires all essential amino acids for growth

Own extracellular enzymes to hydrolyze proteins
Assay takes 2-3 days

Escherichia coli
Auxotrophs for specific amino acids are used
Use own extracellular enzymes to digest food
ingredients
Assay can be completed in 6 to 8 hours
Advantages of microbial assays
Compared to animal assays:

Simple

Fast

Cheaper

Do not require elaborate equipment

Do not require vast working space

Overall cost effective

In-Vitro

Uji in-vitro : murah, singkat

• Penentuan aktivitas antitripsin dan antikimotripsin
(Berdasarkan penurunan aktivitas hidrolisis tripsin
pada suatu substrat)
• Penentuan aktivitas hemaglutinin
(aktivitas hemaglutinin ekstrak kacang-kacangan
didasarkan pada kemampuannya untuk mengaglutinasi sel
darah merah)
• Penentuan daya cerna protein
(pepsin-tripsin, pepsin-pankreatin dan teknik
multienzim : tripsin, kimotripsin dan peptidase)
In-Vivo

Uji in-vivo : hewan coba & manusia (biologis)

• Protein Efficiency Ration (PER)

• Net Protein Ratio (NPR)
• Biological Value (BV)
• Net Protein Utilization (NPU)
• Daya Cerna Sejati (DC Sejati) / True digestibility
PER

• Metode ini dikembangkan oleh Osborne, Mendel dan Ferry

tahun 1919, merupakan evaluasi nilai gizi protein yang banyak
digunakan.

• Telah ditetapkan sebagai metode resmi FDA untuk

penetapan mutu protein dalam nutrition labelling.

• PER dilakukan selama 28 hari pada hewan coba tikus,

menggunakan jenis pakan standart (AIN/ANRC).
NPR

• NPR dikembangkan untuk memecahkan masalah teoritis

pada PER, dimana dalam penetapan PER semua protein
yang dikonsumsi diasumsikan digunakan semua untuk
pertumbuhan, tidak mengantisipasi fungsi protein
pemeliharaan.

• Pelaksanaan NPR sama dengan PER, hanya terdapat

grup tikus yang diberi ransum non protein dan lama
waktu NPR hanya 10 hari
 THE MINERALS

• small, naturally occurring, inorganic, chemical

elements
Inorganic:
being or composed of matter other than plant or animal

• serve as structural components and in many vital

processes in the body
 MAJOR VS. TRACE
Major minerals Trace Minerals
– Larger Quantities (>5g) – SMALLer Quantities (<5g)
 Calcium  Iron
 Magnesium  Zinc
 Fluoride
 Phosphorous
 Selenium
 Sodium
 Iodine
 Potassium
• Chromium
• Chloride • Manganese
• Sulfur • Molybdenum
• Copper
 MINERALS OF FISH

The most abundant elements in Fish:

Calcium (Ca), Phosphorous (P),
Iron (Fe), Iodine (I),
Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr).
 MINERALS OF SEAWEED

The most abundant trace elements in seaweed tissue:

Iron (Fe) Zinc (Zn),

Mangan (Mn), Iodine (I).
 MINERAL FUNCTIONS

1. Bone Health

2. Blood Health

3. Fluid Balance

4. Energy Metabolism

5. Antioxidant
 • Vitamin D
MINERALS FOR: BONE HEALTH • Vitamin K

Major minerals Trace Minerals

– LARGEr – SMALLer Quantities
Quantities Iron
Calcium Zinc
Magnesium Copper
Phosphorous Fluoride
Sodium Selenium
Potassium Iodine
Chromium
Chloride
Sulfur
Distribution
 Calcium
• Total content of calcium in the body is more than 1200 mg. 
99% of total content is deposit in bones and teeth,
1% in blood and body fluids

• Intracellular calcium:
- cytosol 
    - mitochondria 
    - other microsomes 
    - regulated by "pumps" 

The serum level of calcium is closely regulated with a normal

total calcium of 2 -2.75 mmol/L (9-10.5 mg/dL) and a normal
ionized calcium of 1.1-1.4 mmol/L (4.5-5.6 mg/dL).
 Different Forms of
Calcium
Most of the Calcium in the body exists as the mineral
hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2.

 Calcium in the plasma:

45% in ionized form (the physiologically active form)

45% bound to proteins (predominantly albumin)

10% complexed with anions (citrate, sulfate, phosphate)

 Both total calcium and ionized calcium

measurements are available in many laboratories
 Absorption of Ca
• Absorption is taking place from the first and second part of
duodenum against concentration gradients
• Absorption required a carrier protein , helped by Ca-dependent
ATPase

Increased absorption-
- calcitriol , active form of Vit-D - PTH
- acidic pH - Lys and Arg

Inhibiting absorption -
- phytic acid - oxalates
- phosphate - Mg
- caffeine
Calcium turnover
 BONE HEALTH AND OSTEOPOROSIS
A Report of the Surgeon General

• Osteoporosis is the most common bone disease

• 10 million Americans > 50 % have osteoporosis (55%)
• 34 million at risk for developing osteoporosis
• In 2005, osteoporosis-related fractures were responsible for an
estimated $19 billion in costs.
– By 2025, experts predict that these costs will rise to
approximately $25.3 billion
 OSTEOPOROSIS

Normal
• Adult bone loss Bone
• A condition where the
bones become fragile and
porous
Osteoporotic
Bone
 BONE MASS AND AGE

Bone mass:
• Decreases with age
• Peaks around 30 years of
age
 MAKE-UP OF BONES
• Protein
– Bone matrix and bone growth

• Calcium
– Most abundant mineral in body – 2% of body weight
– Provides structure to bones and teeth
– 99% of calcium in bones

• Phosphorous
– Second most abundant mineral in the body; in bones & teeth
– Critical role in bone formation
– Gives bones and teeth strength and rigidity

• Magnesium
– Helps regulate bone and mineral status – cofactor
– Necessary for bone health
 MAINTAINING BONE HEALTH

Osteoporosis Prevention

• A balanced diet rich in

– Calcium (1000mg <50, 1200mg >50) m g
44
– Vitamin D (400 – 800 mg) m is 7
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 TO PREVENT OSTEOPOROSIS…………..

• Weight-bearing exercises

• A healthy lifestyle with no smoking or excessive alcohol

intake and
• Bone density testing and medication when appropriate

• A decrease in estrogen levels at menopause leads to a rapid

loss of bone mineral density and an increase in fracture risk.
 CALCIUM IN BLOOD AND BONES

• Calcium necessary for nerve transmission, muscle

contraction, blood pressure regulation, blood clotting
– Adults: 8.8-10.4 mg/dL of blood (typical)

• Bone pays to maintain blood levels

• Blood calcium level maintained by hormones-

– Parathyroid hormone (increases blood calcium by
release of calcium from bone)
– Calcitonin (lowers blood calcium)
 DIETARY CALCIUM SOURCES

• Dairy: milk, cheese, yogurt

• Broccoli, kale, dark green vegetables

• Orange juice with calcium

• Salmon, sardines
with the bones
 CALCIUM SUPPLEMENTATION
– Spreads/margarines
– Breakfast cereals – Bottled water
– Breads – Candy
– Pasta – Energy bars
– Pancake, waffle mixes – Soy beverages
– Juices, juice drinks – Dairy products
 MAGNESIUM

• Nearly 99% of the total body magnesium is located in bone or the

intracellular space.

• Second plentiful cation of the extracellular fluids.

• Mg is a cofactor of all enzymes involved in phosphate transfer reactions
2+

utilizing ATP and other nucleotide triphosphates as substrate.

• Required for the structural integrity of numerous intracellular proteins

and nucleic acids.
 MAGNESIUM

• A substrate or cofactor for important enzymes such as adenosine

triphosphatase, guanosine triphosphatase, phospholipase C, adenylate
cyclase, and guanylate cyclase.

• A required cofactor for the activity of over 300 other enzymes.

• A regulator of ion channels; an important intracellular signaling
molecule.

• A modulator of oxidative phosphorylation.

Magnesium metabolism

• Only 1% to 3% of total intracellular

Mg2+ exist as a free ionized form (conc.
0.5 to 1.0 mmol/l).

• Total cellular concentration can vary

from 5 to 20 mmol/l.

• Intracellular Mg2+ is predominantly

complexed to organic molecules.
 Magnesium metabolism
Hypomagnesemia cause:

• changes in skeletal and cardiac muscle

• changes in neuromuscular function,
• hyperirritability, psychotic behaviour
• tetany

Hypermagnesemia cause:

• muscle weakness
• hypotension
• ECG changes
• sedation and confusion

Hypermagnesemia is usual due to renal insuficiency.

 PHOSPHOROUS

Major role in structure and function of all living cells and as a

free ion
Integral part of:
- nucleic acids - nucleotides
- phospholipids - phosphoproteins
- Enzymes that attach phosphates in ester or acid
anhydride linkages
- Other enzymes (phosphatases, pyrophosphatases)

Blood phosphate: H2PO4- and HPO42- 

Concentration measured as phosphorus: 2.5 - 4.5 mg/100 ml 
Skeletal hydroxyapatite - Ca(PO4)2 or Ca(OH)2 
 Phosphorus metabolism

Absorption in the jejunum.

Phosphate absorption is regulate by 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol and parathyroid
hormone.

PTH mediates mobilization and deposition of calcium

and phosphate from bone.
 • Vitamin K
MINERALS FOR:
Blood Health

Major minerals Trace Minerals

– LARGEr Quantities – SMALLer Quantities
Calcium Iodine
Magnesium Iron
Sodium
Zinc
Potassium
Chloride Copper
Phosphorous Fluoride
Sulfur Selenium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Manganese
 BLOOD HEALTH: IRON
Animal biological function:

• Bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells

• Helps transport O2
• Deficiency: ANEMIA
– Fatigue
– Headaches
– Shortness of breath
 IRON

Sources:

– Animals - heme iron – MORE readily absorbed

• Meats, poultry, fish (clams)

– Plant - NON heme iron

• Enriched cereals, tofu, spinach
Iron can be either stored within the
enterocyte as ferritin or it can be
transferred across the basolateral
membrane to the plasma by transport
protein FERROPORTIN1 and MTP1.
(Requires oxidation of Ferrous to Ferric
by hephaestin.)
 TRANSPORT PROTEINS
1. DMT1 (Divalent Metal Transporter 1)
(Tranports from lumen into the enterocytes)

2. FERROPORTIN1
(Transports from enterocytes to circulation)
 IRON IN THE BODY
• Ferritin is the major iron storage protein.

• Iron is essential for the delivery of oxygen to cells. Two

oxygen-containing proteins, hemoglobin and myoglobin,
contain iron.

• Most of the iron in the body is part of hemoglobin.

• Recommended intake: 8-18 mg/day (adults)

 IRON METABOLISM
Dietary Iron:
Iron is essential element and must be precisely regulated.

On the lumen side of small intestine iron is reduced from its
ferric form(Fe3+) to ferrous form(Fe2+).

Ferrous iron is then transported in enterocytes by

DMT1(divalent metal transporter).
 IRON DEFICIENCY

• When iron is deficient, hemoglobin cannot be produced.

• When there is insufficient hemoglobin, red blood cells are

microcyctic and hypochromic and unable to deliver
sufficient oxygen to the tissues. This is known as iron
deficiency anemia.

• It is estimated that as much as 80% of the world’s population

may be iron deficient and 30% suffer from iron deficiency
anemia.
 CAUSES OF IRON DEFICIENCY

• Blood loss: You lose blood, you lose iron.

– Heavy menstrual blood loss
– Bleeding
– Blood loss induced by parasitic infections

• Poor dietary intake

– Vitamin C intake increases absorption of iron
– Small amount of meat (heme iron) enhances increased
absorption of iron from beans (non heme iron)
 SYMPTOMS OF ANEMIA

• No symptoms if anemia is mild.

• symptoms are mild at first and develop slowly.

– Feeling grumpy, weak or tired more often than usual, or
with exercise
– Headaches, problems concentrating or thinking

• As the anemia gets worse,

– Blue color to the whites of the eyes
– Brittle nails, pale skin color
– Light-headedness when you stand up, shortness of breath
INTERFERING WITH ABSORPTION

Bioavailability
may be reduced due to other foods consumed at the same
time

Oxalic Acid absorption of:

• Iron
Phytic Acid • Calcium
Tannins
 ZINC
• Found in plant and animal foods; better absorbed from
animal foods

• Protects cells from free radical damage

• Necessary for protein synthesis, cell division and

immunity

• RDA: Men 8 mg/day; women11 mg/day

• Deficiency uncommon
• Too much Zinc suppresses immunity
 ZINC

Component of zinc metalloenzymes :

carbonic anhydrase
lactate dehydrogenase
glutamate dehydrogenase
alkaline phosphatase
thimidine kinase
matrix metalloproteinases

Gustin – protein in saliva – major role in taste.

 ZINC
Deficiency of Zn has serious consequence :

• failure metabolism of nucleic acids (cell division,

growth and differentiation)

• multisystem disfunction as growth retardation,

hypogonadism, ophtalmologic, gastrointestinal,
neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Zinc deficiency in children are marked by poor growth

and impairment of sexual development.
MINERALS FOR: FLUID BALANCE

Major minerals Trace Minerals

– LARGEr Quantities – SMALLer
Calcium Quantities
Magnesium Iron
Phosphorous Zinc
Copper
Sodium
Fluoride
Potassium Selenium
Chloride Chromium
Sulfur
MINERALS FOR: ENERGY METABOLISM

Major minerals Trace Minerals

– LARGEr Quantities – SMALLer Quantities
Calcium Iron
Magnesium Zinc
Phosphorous Copper
Sodium Fluoride
Potassium Selenium
Chloride Iodine
Sulfur Chromium
 IODINE
• Supports energy regulation
• We need 150 mcg/day
• Critical for synthesis of Thyroid hormone
• Deficiency AND Excessive Intakes
– Goiter – enlargement of thyroid gland
• Present in very few foods
– Think SALT (fortified) and salt water
• saltwater fish, salty foods
 THYROID HORMONES

• Promote protein synthesis

• Regulate basal metabolism
• Promote growth and development

• Iodine is an essential component of thyroid

hormones.
 MINERALS FOR: Antioxidant

Major minerals Trace Minerals

– LARGEr Quantities – SMALLer Quantities
Calcium Iodine
Magnesium Iron
Sodium Zinc
Potassium Copper
Chloride Fluoride
Phosphorous Selenium
Sulfur Chromium
Molybdenum
Manganese
MINERALS FOR: Antioxidant
• Works with Vitamin E
Qualified Health
Claim for
Supplements:
SELENIUM &
CANCER

Selenium
deficiency can
increase risk of
cancer

NO CONFIRMED
RESULTS AS YET
 Selenium
• an integral component of glutathion peroxidase (intracellular
antioxidant),
• a scavenger of peroxides,
• an essential element for immune function (selenoproteins).
Selenoproteins catalyse oxido-reduction reactions, protective
function from oxidative stress (macrophage- or neutrophil-
generated free-radical species), UV in sunlight.

The food content of Se is highly dependent upon the soil type

in which the foodstuff are grown.
 SELENIUM

• Sources: seafood, eggs

• Also, grains, seeds grown on selenium rich soil
• Need 55 mcg/day (adults)
• Deficiency- Keshan disease
- Enlarged heart
- Poor heart function
 TUGAS TERSTRUKTUR

Buat paper tentang mineral pada ikan dan rumput

laut (min. 15 halaman), dengan aturan sbb:

1. Materi (Ca, P, Fe, I, Zn, Cr dan Mn)

2. Isi (Penjelasan singkat, Mekanisme penyerapan,
manfaat kesehatan bagi tubuh, penyakit terkait
dengan defisiensi dan kelebihannya,
3. Format (Arial, 11, 1,5 spasi)
4. Pustaka (min 6 jurnal)
THANK YOU