MODULE - 3

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Module3:
Managing Research Assignment
 Questionnaire Design
 -Sampling and Fieldwork Techniques
 -Measurement and Scaling Concepts

 -Attitude Measurement
RESEARCH TOOLS OR DATA GATHERING
DEVICES

1. Questionnaire
2. Opinionnaire or attitude scale
3. Interview and interview schedule
4. Observation method
5. Content analysis
6. Projective test
7. Rating scale
8. Sociometric test
9. Q-sort
10. Sementic differential
DATA COLLECTION
DATA Means Facts, information
or premises, systematically
collected and formally presented
for the purpose of drawing
inferences
Collection : data collection is the
process of obtaining valuable and
reliable information for purpose of
research
TYPES OF DATA
1. Data pertaining to human beings :
(a) Demographic and socio economic
characteristics of individuals (Ex:- Age, gender,
race, religion, material status, education ,etc.)

(b) Behavioral variables. (EX: - attitudes,

knowledge, awareness, etc).
2. Organizational data: - it is related to
organization’s origin, ownership performance
growth, etc.
3. Territorial data: - it is related to
populations, villages, cities, talukas, etc.
SOURCE OF DATA
PRIMARY SOURCE: primary sources are
original sources from which the researcher
directly collects data that have not been
previously collected.
EX:- collection of data directly by the researcher
on brand awareness, brand preference, brand
loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior
from a sample of consumers by interviewing
them. Primary data are first-hand information
collected through various methods such as
observation, interviewing, mailing etc.
METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA
COLLECTION
1. OBSERVATION
2. INTERVIEW
3. MAIL SURVEY
4. EXPERIMENTATION
5. SIMULATION
6. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE
METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
 OBSERVATION:- observation may be defined as a
systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its
proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data
for a particular study. Observation as a method includes
both ‘seeing’ and ‘hearing’.
METHODS OF OBSERVATION
 Structured –unstructured observation
Structured observation is used when the research problem
has been formulated precisely and the observers have
been told specifically what is to be observed. They may
be given a simple form to record their observations
Unstructured observation: observers are free to observe
whatever they think is relevant and important.
METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
Disguised- undisguised observation
In disguised observation, the respondents do not
know that they are being observed
In non-disguised observation, the respondents are
well aware that they are being observed
Ex; observers often pose as shoppers
Direct- Indirect observation
In direct observation, the event or the behaviour of
a person is observed as it occurs.
Indirect observation implies that some record of
past behaviour is observed
METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA
COLLECTION

Observation under natural

setting-laboratory setting
Observation in a laboratory setting,
on the other hand, enables the
observer to control extraneous
variables which influence the
behaviour of people.
 ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION METHOD
 The original data can be collected at the time of
occurrence of the event
 Observation is done in natural surroundings.

 Sometimes, the respondents may not like to part

with some of the information, such information
can be obtained by the researcher through
observation ex ;- small children
 it is easier to conduct disguised observation
studies than disguised questioning
 There is no element of artificialness in
observational studies, especially when the
observed person are unaware of their behavior
being observed
DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
METHOD

 The observer might wait for longer period

at the point of observation
 Extensive training of observers is required
 This is an expensive method
 It is very difficult to gather information
on (1) opinions (2) intentions
 INTERVIEWING
 It may be defined as a two way systematic
conversation between an investigator and
an informant, initiated for obtaining
information relevant to a specific study. It
involves not only conversation, but also
leaning from the respondent’s gestures,
facial expressions and pauses, and his
environment.
 Interviewing requires face-to-face contact
or contact over telephone and calls for
interviewing skills.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW

Structured/ formal interview

Unstructured interview
Stress interview
Group interview method
Panel interview
In- depth interview
Decision- Making interview
Merits of interview
 The interview method of data collection is often fast and
cheap
 This method brings the respondent who supplies
information and client who use it, closer.
 This method is quite flexible, because different questions
are asked according to the respondents attitude and
participation
 The findings emerge in a form which is fully
understandable to the clients

Demerits of interview
 It does not indicate how extensive the attitudes expressed by
the participants are:
 The data is not at all projectable
 This method of data collection cannot cover large areas
 Much of the results depend on the moderator
INTERVIEWING PROCESS
Preparation
Introduction
Developing rapport
Carrying the interview forward
Recording the interview
Closing the interview
3. MAIL SURVEY
This method involves sending questionnaires to
the respondents to the respondents with a
request to complete them and return them by
post.
This can be used in the case of educated
respondents only.
The mail questionnaires should be simple so
that the respondents can easily understand
the question and answer them.
It should preferably contain mostly closed-end
and multiple-choice questions so that it could
be completed within a few minutes
 SECONDARY DATA
 These are sources containing data which have been
collected and gathered for another purpose.
 The secondary sources consist of readily available
compendia and already gathered statistical statements
and reports whose data may be used by researches for
their studies.
 Ex:- census reports, statistical statements, annual
reports and financial statements of companies,
published by NABARD, publications of international
organizations such as UNO, IMF world bank, etc,
trade and financial journals, newspapers, government
publications, etc.,
 Secondary sources consist of not only published
records and reports, but also unpublished records.
FEATURES OF SECONDARY
SOURCES
 They are readymade and readily
available
 They consist of data over which a
researcher has no original control
over collection and classifications.
 Secondary sources are not limited in
time and space.
Advantages of secondary data
 Secondary data is used by managers as it is cheaper, and
takes less time to gather, thus saving them lot of money and
time
 Secondary data can help identify, clarity and redefine the
research problem
 Secondary data might also hold a solution to the problem
 Secondary data may provide alternatives methods that can
be used for primary research
 Secondary data generates requisite information for better
creativity

Disadvantages of secondary data

 Lack of availability
 Lack of relevance
 Inaccurate data
 Insufficient data
 Syndicated data: - Syndicated services
are provided by certain organizations,
which collect and tabulate marketing
information on a continuing basis.
 Reports abased on the marketing
information collected by such
organizations are sent periodically
(weekly, monthly, or quarterly) to clients
who are subscribers.
Syndicated services may be regarded as
an “intermediate” source falling between
the primary and secondary sources
Syndicated data can be collected using the following
Surveys:
 Periodic surveys
 Panel surveys
 Shared survey
 Periodic surveys: Theses are surveys that are conducted at
regular intervals- weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually
 Panel surveys: Those surveys that are conducted among a
group of respondents who have agreed to respond to a
number of mail, telephone and personal interviews over a
period of time
 Shared surveys : Shared surveys conducted by a research
firm use questionnaires that contain a pool of questions
which are of interest to different clients. Hence, these are
known as multi-clients surveys ands are sometimes called
omnibus surveys.
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Characteristics of questionnaire
 It must be simple, the respondents
should be able to understand the
questions
 It must generate relies that can be
easily be recorded by the interviewer
 It should be specific, so as to allow the
interviewer to keep the interview to
the point
 It should be well arranged, to
facilitate analysis and interpretation
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Characteristics of questionnaire
 It must keep the respondent interested
throughout
 The utility of data
 Effectiveness in producing data
 The participant’s Ability to Answer
Accurately
 The Respondent’s willingness to
answer accurately
 Effect of external events
PRINCIPLES FOR PREPARING A
QUESTIONNAIRE
A short letter is enclosed
 Enclose a self addressed stamped envelop for
the respondent’s convenience in returning the
questionnaire
 Assure the respondent that his answers will be
kept in confidence
 Promise the respondent that he will not be
solicited after he fills up the questionnaire
 if possible, offer special inducements ( free
fifts) to return the questionnaire
 If the respondent is interested, promise a copy
of the results of the survey to him
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
A. Open-ended questions;
 Participants to respond in his
/her own words without being restricted
to pre-defined response choices is known
as an open-ended question

 What do you think of the performance of

the Indian hockey team in the recent
Olympics?
 Which brand of soft drink do you like ?
Coke or Pepsi?
B.CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONS
1.Binary
 These are also known as dichotomous
questions as they permit only two possible
answers. The respondent has to choose one of
the two permissible answers .

 These questions have the response

options
“yes” or “No” or “True” or “ False”
Agree or Disagree
B.CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONS
2.Ranking questions
 These questions require the participant to rank the
response options listed on a continuum basis in order of
preference
 Ranking questions are used to get information that reveals
participants attitudes and opinions

Example: The factors that influence your decision to buy

from a particular supermarket are listed below please rank
them from the most important (1) to the least important ( 7)
 Conveniently located ………………..
 Helpful sales staff ………………..
 Recommended by a friends or relative ……………..
 Regular discounts offered …………………..
 Instant home delivery ……………………..
 Availability of everything I need………………….
B.CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONS
3.Multiple-choice question
 These questions cover all significant degrees of response,
the respondent has to select an option that best describes
their feelings. These are mostly a variation of binary
questions
4.Checklist questions
 These are questions where the participant has the freedom
to choose one or more of the response options available
Q. Which premium brand of shirts do you possess? ( tick as
many of the following as apply)
 Allen Solly
 Louise Phillippe
 Van Heusen
 Color Plus
 Zodiac
PROCESS CONSTRUCTION OF
QUESTIONNAIRE

Information sought
Type of questionnaire to be used
Writing a first draft
Re-examining and revising
questions
Pre-testing and editing the
questionnaire
Specifying procedure for its use
 SAMPLING AND FIELDWORK
TECHNIQUES
SAMPLING
 Sample is a subset or some part of a larger
population
 Population: the entire aggregation of items from
which samples can be drawn is known as a
population
 Sample: is a part of the total population
 Sampling: is the act, process, technique of
selecting a representative part of a population for
the propose of determining the characteristics of
the whole population .
 Sampling is a process of selecting a segment of
the universe to obtain information of
ascertainable reliability about the population
 Sample is a small piece of the population
obtained by a probability process that
mirrors, with known precision, the
various pattern and sub-class of the
population
 Census is an investigation of all the
individual elements making up a
population, a total enumeration rather
than a sample. A researcher typically is
interested in the characteristics of a
population .
 SAMPLING PROCESS
Step .1 Define the population
 Target population is the specific, complete group of population
elements relevant to the reach project . Sample elements are
basically drawn from the target population .
 If we were to conduct a survey on the consumption of coffee in
Karnataka, then these specification might be as follows
 Element : Housewives
 Sampling units : households, then housewives
 extent: Karnataka state
 Time : January 1-10

2.Identify the sampling frame

 A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample
may be drawn, its also called working population.
 The sampling frame usually is a list of population members
used to obtain a sample . For Eg a list of the names, addresses,
and phone numbers of specific population
 Researchers use easily available sampling frames like telephone
directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users.
 SAMPLING PROCESS
3. Specify the sampling unit
 During the actual sampling process, the elements of the population must be
selected according to certain procedures.
 A. sampling unit is a single element or group of elements subject to selection
in the sample.
Eg households, offices, etc
 A sampling unit may be a primary or a secondary sampling unit
 Primary sampling unit is a unit selected in the first stage of sampling.
 Secondary sampling unit is selected in the second stage of sampling

4. Sampling method / procedure

 The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the
business research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, the
nature of the problem, to be investigated.
 All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is ,
probability and non-probability sampling.
 probability sample – to choose
 probability samples are also known as random samples and non-
probability samples as non-random samples.
 SAMPLING PROCESS
5. Determine the sample size.
 one has to decide “how many elements of the
target population are to be chosen”. The sample
size depends upon the type of study that is being
conducted
6. Specify the sampling Plan:
 this means that one should indicate how
decisions made so far are to be implemented
7. Select the sample:
 A good deal of office and fieldwork is involved
in the actual selection of the sampling elements
 Most of the problems in this stage are faced by
the interviewer while contacting the Sample-
respondents
 STEPS IN SAMPLING PROCESS

 Defining Target Population

 Specifying Sampling Frame

 Specifying Sampling Unit

 Selection of sampling methods

 Determination of sample size

 Specifying sampling Plan

 Selecting sampling plan

 Sampling Methods

 the technique or method of selecting a sample is of

fundamental importance in the theory sampling . The
method of sampling depends up on the nature of the
data type of enquiry .
 CATEGORIES OF SAMPLING
1.Probability
2.Non - Probability sampling
Probability
 Probability sampling methods are those in which every
item in the universe has a known chance or probability
,of being chosen for the sample.
 This implies that the selection of sample items is
independent of the person making the study that is , the
sampling operation is controlled so objectively that the
items will be chosen strictly at random
Non-probability
 Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in
which units of the sample are selected on the basis of
personal judgments or convenience
 In non-probability sampling the probability of any
particular member of population being chosen is
unknown,
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1.Simple Random sampling:
 A sampling process where each element in the target population has
an equal chance or probability of inclusion in the sample is known as
simple random sampling.
 If a sample of 15000 names is to be drawn from the telephone
directory, then there is an equal chance for each number in the
directory to be selected . These numbers could be randomly generated
by the computer or picked out of the box
2.Systematic sampling
 Systematic sampling procedure is a procedure in which an initial
starting point is selected by a random process, and than every n th
number on the list is selected
 Researcher wants take a sample of 1000 from a list consisting of
200000 names of companies. With systematic sampling, every 200the
name from the list would be drawn
3. Stratified sampling :
 Stratified sampling is a probability sampling procedure in which
simple random sub samples are drawn form with in different strata
that are more or less equal on some characteristic,
 The reason for taking a stratified sample is to have a more efficient
sample than could be taken on the basis of simple random sampling
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
4.Cluster sampling
 Cluster sampling is an economically efficient sampling technique
in which the primary sampling unit is not the individual element
in the population but a large cluster of a element
 In this case the total population is divided on the basis of problem
under study, into some recognizable sub – divisions which are
termed as cluster, and a simple random sample of these cluster is
drawn
05.Multistage sampling
 Multistage sampling refers to a sampling technique which is
carried out in various stages.
 Instead of enumerating all the sampling units in the selected
cluster, one can obtain better and more efficient estimators by
resorting to sub-sampling . Cluster being termed as primary units
and the units within clusters as secondary units .
 The above technique may be generalized to what is called
multistage sampling
 Non-Probability sampling
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
06.Judgmental/ purposive sampling;
 is a Non-probability sampling technique in which an
experienced individual selects sample based upon some
appropriate characteristic of the sample members.
07.Snowball sampling:
 snowball sampling is a from of judgmental sampling that
is very appropriate when it is necessary to reach small ,
suppose a long range – planning group wants to sample
people who are very knowledgeable about a specialized
technology, such as the use of lasers in construction
08.Quota sampling :
 Quota sampling is a type of judgment sampling, which
enhances the representation of population, . The logic
behind quota sampling is that certain relevant
characteristics describe the dimensions of the population. If
a sample has the same distribution on these characteristics,
than it is likely to be representative of the population
regarding other variables on which we have no control
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING
CONCEPTS
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
Criteria for good measurement:
1.Reliability
 Reliable measuring scales provide stable measures at
different times under different conditions.
Ex; coffees vending machine gives the same quality of coffee
every time then it can be concluded that the measurement of
the coffee vending machine is reliable
2.Validity
 The ability of a scale or a measuring instrument to
measure what it is intended to measure can be termed as
the validity of the measurement .
3. Objectivity
4. Simplicity
5. Accuracy
6. Economy
MEASUREMENT
 Measurement in research consists of assigning
numbers to empirical events in compliance
with a set or rules.
 This definition implies that measurement is a
three- part process
 Selecting the observable empirical events

 Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme

for assigning numbers or symbols to represents
aspects of the event being measured
 Applying the mapping rule to each observation
of that event
MEASUREMENT SCALES

 The design of a measurement scale

depends on the objective of the
research study
Different types of measurement scales
are given below
1. Nominal scale
2. ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
 1.NOMINAL SCALE
When the measurement is made with the help of an
arbitrary number or symbol . It is called nominal scale. It
is generally used to distinguish one property or objects
from other properties. It helps to determine whether the
object belongs to the same class or not
EX; A nominal scale designed to measure the nature of
occupation may be as given below:
Public sector
Private sector
self employed
Unemployed
Others
 1,2,3,4,5, as a researcher can not use those numbers to
perform any type of mathematical or statistical operations
on those numbers .
 A nominal scale does not give any relationship between the
variables
 2.ORDINAL SCALE
An ordinal scale is used to arrange objects according to some
particular order. Thus, the variables in the ordinal scale
can be ranked
Airtel …….
Vodafone……
BSNL ……
Reliance ……
 A respondent may rank these players depending on his
experience / perception of them. If a respondent ranks Airtel
as 1 and Vodafone as 2
 A typical ordinal scale in research asks respondents to rate
career opportunities, brands, companies, or the like as
“Excellent”, “Good” “Fair” or “Poor”
 Researchers know “Excellent” is higher than “good” but they
do not know by how much
3.INTERVAL SCALE/ RATING SCALE
 Interval scale the intervals between the
points on the scale are equal .this is the
scale where there is equal distance
between the two points on the scale.
 Interval scales not only indicate order,
they also measure order or distance in
units or equal intervals
 Similarly we can design an interval
scale with points placed at an interval
of 1 point
 10….9…8….7…6…5…4…3…2…1…
4.SAMPLE RATING SCALES

Dichotomous:
“I plan to purchase a Mindwriter
laptop in the next 12 months”
Yes ….. No…..
05.CHECKLIST:
“ check any of the sources you consulted
when designing your new home”
 Online planning services………….
 Magazines……….
 Independent contractor…….
 Developer’s models
 Designer…….
 Architect …….
 Other ……………
06.LIKERT SCALE

 An extremely popular means for

measuring attitudes. Respondents
indicate their own attitudes by checking
how strongly they agree or disagree
with statements.
 Response alternatives: “strongly agree”,
“agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”, and
“strongly disagree”.
07.RATIO SCALE
A ratio scale is a special kind of
interval scale that has a natural
Zero point. With such a scale – of
weight, market share, or dollars in
savings accounts
The type of scale that is utilized in
research will determine the form of
the statistical analysis
Measurement and scaling concepts
includes:
1. Distinguishing among nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio scales
2. Understanding the need for index or
composite measures
3. Defining the three criteria for good
measurement
4. Discussing the various methods of
determining reliability
5. Discussin the various methods for
assessing validity.
What is measurement?
Measurement and scaling are
-basic tools used in the scientific method

-used in almost every business research

situation.
Measurement can be defined as “the assignment
of numbers to objects to represent amounts or
degrees of a properties, or behaviour of
persons.
Scaling is a procedure for the assignment of
numbers to a property of objects in order to
impart some of the characteristics .
Measurement can be defined as a
standardized process of assigning
numbers or other symbols to certain
characteristics of the objects of interest,
according to some pre - specified rules.
Measurement often deals with numbers,
because mathematical and statistical
analysis can be performed only on
numbers and they can be communicated
through out the world in the same form
without any translation problems.
There are four types of
measuring scales:

1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
NOMINAL SCALE
Nominal scales assign numbers or letter to
objects only for identification or
classification.
Nominal scales are least restrictive and are
widely used in social sciences and business
research.
There is one to one relation to each number
and what represents. Statistical calculations
are not meaningful.
Example: 1. Do you own a car Yes/No
2. Where do you live : City / Town /
Villages
 ORDINAL SCALES
These scales are used for measuring
characteristics of data having transitivity
property ( that is if x>y, y>z, then, x>z).
They include the characteristics of the
nominal scale plus an indicator of order.
Statistical positional measures such as
median, range, percentile ranking and
quartile can be obtained.
Ordinal scale Example:
Please rank the following objectives of the manufacturing
department of your organization according to their
importance:

Objective Rank

Quality

Cost

Flexibility

Dependability
 INTERVAL SCALES

The interval scale has all the characteristics of the

nominal and ordinal scales and in addition, the units of
measure.
Descriptive Statistics, mean, standard deviation and
variance can be calculated
All most all usual statistical measures are applicable to
interval measurement.
Ex : The link between the R&D and marketing
departments in your organization is :
Very strong/strong/moderate/weak/very weak
1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5
 RATIO SCALES
In essence, a ratio scale is an interval scale with a true zero
point. Ratio scales are found more commonly in the
physical sciences than in the social sciences.
Measures of weight, length, time interval etc.,
In social sciences we do find properties of concern that can
be ratio scaled: Income level, age, years of experience
etc.,
Geometric mean, co-efficient of variation can be calculated.
INDEX MEASURES
Index (composite) measure is multi item instrument
constructed to measure a single concept.
Asking different questions in order to measure the same
thing provides a more accurate cumulative measure
than asking a single question.
For example: A sales person’s morale may be measured
by combining questions such as
a. How satisfied are you with your job?
b. How satisfied are you in your personal life?
 CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT
There are three major criteria for evaluating
measurements :
1. Reliability : refers to the measuring instruments
ability to provide consistent results in repeated uses.
2. Validity : refers to the degree to which the
instrument measures the concept the researcher
wants to measure.
3. Sensitivity : is the measuring instruments ability to
accurately measure variability in stimuli or
responses.
 1. RELIABILITY
Reliability concerns the extent to
which any measuring device yields
the same results on repeated trials.
It is a measure of internal consistency
of an instrument and indicated
whether variations in the responses
of individuals are due to
inconsistencies in the items included
in the scale.
Reliability of the entire scale was
estimated with the help of two
popularly known methods.
1. Internal consistency method –
requiring the application of
Cronbach Alpha Coefficient (α).
2. Split – half method involving the
use of - Guttman Split – half test.
VALIDITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
The ability of a scale or measuring
instrument to measure what it is
intended to measure.
There are three basic approaches to
measure the validity of the
instruments.
1. Content validity
2. Criterion validity
3. Construct validity.
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

Attitude measurement is particularly important in

behavioural research.
Three components of the attitudes are
1. Affective attitude ( Emotions or
feelings involved)
2. Cognitive attitude ( Awareness or
knowledge)
3. Behavioural attitude
ATTITUDE RATING SCALES
1. Simple Attitude scales
2. Category Scales
3. Summated Ratings Method: The Likert
Scale
4. Semantic Differential
5. Numerical Scales
6. Constant – sum scale
7. Stapel Scale
8. Graphic Rating Scales
1. SIMPLE ATTITUDE SCALES

Basically attitude scaling requires

that an individual agree or disagree
with a statement or respond to a
single question.
Ex : “The president should run for re-
election” an individual might be
asked to indicate whether he likes or
dislikes…
 Thistype of self – rating scale merely
classifies respondents into one of two
categories.

 Ithas the properties of nominal scale.

 Simple attitude scales may be used
when questionnaires are extremely
long…. And
 When respondents have little
education..
2. CATEGORY SCALES
Category scales : is an attitude scale consisting
of several response categories to provide the
respondent with alternative ratings.
Consider the questions below:
How often is your supervisor friendly to you?
 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Very Often
Each of these category scales is a
more sensitive measure than a
scale with only two response
categories.
Each provides more information.
Wording is an extremely important
factor in the usefulness of these
scales.
SOME COMMON WORDINGS FOR CATEGORY
SCALES ARE :

Excellent Good Fair poor

Quality Very good Fairly Not very Not good
Good good at all

Satisfa Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Very

satisfied satisfied satisfied dissatisfie dissatisfie
ction nor d d
dissatisfie
d
3. SUMMATED RATINGS METHOD: THE LIKERT
SCALE

 Business researchers’ adapted some of

summated ratings method, developed
by Rensis Likert.
 It is extremely popular for measuring
attitudes because the method is simple
to administer.
Likert Scale :

A measure of attitudes designed to allow

respondents to indicate how strongly
they agree or disagree with carefully
constructed statements that range from
very positive to very negative
towards an attitude.
The format of a typical five-point
Likert scale
1. Strongly agree,
2. Agree
3. Uncertain
4. Disagree
5. Strongly disagree
 Likert scaling is a bipolar scaling
method…
 Measuring either positive or
negative response to a statement
 Sometimes an even- point scale is
use, where the option of “Neither
agree nor disagree “ is removed.
This method is called as “forced
choice” method.
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
 The semantic differential is a 7 – point
rating scale with endpoints associated
with bipolar labels that have semantic
meaning.
 Individual items on a semantic
differential scale may be scored on
either a -3 to +3 or 1 to 7 scale.
 Ex: Powerful: ---:---:---:---:---:----:---:-X--
: Weak
5. NUMERICAL SCALE

 Numerical scales have numbers, rather than

“semantic space” to identify categories.
 If the scale items have five response positions, the
scale is called a 5 point numerical scale.
 with seven response position, it is called a 7 – point
numerical scale; and so on..
 5 4 3 2 1
 Extremely Satisfied/ Satisfied/ Dissatisfied/ Extremely
Dissatisfied
6. CONSTANT- SUM SCALE
 The constant-sum scale works best with respondents
with high educational levels, if respondents follow
instructions correctly.
 Preference may be measured by using this technique.

 Ex: Suppose you had Rs.100 per month. How much

would you like to allocate to
 Medical Insurance ----
 Retirement Plan ----
 Children education ---
 Daily expenses -----
Total = 100
7. STAPEL SCALE
 Stapel scale item used in a measurement of
attitude towards a supervisor…
 Ex: Supervisor’s Name The stapel scale
+3
places a single
adjective in the
+2
center of an
+1
even number of
Supportive
numerical
-1
values.
-2
-3
8. GRAPHIC RATING SCALE
A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a
graphic (picture).

Best possible 10
LIfe
9
8
7
6
5
4
3

Worst Possible 2
Life 1
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT
 Much of marketing strategy and tactical
decision making is based on our
understanding of how customers think
and the influence of their perceptions and
attitudes on the decision process
 Implicit attitude is an attitude about one
object that influences the attitude about
other objects.
 Explicit attitude is an expressed positive
or negative evaluation.
 Sensitive attitude one that a holder feels
uncomfortable sharing with others.
 COMPONENT OF ATTITUDES
 Affectivecomponent
 Individuals general feelings towards an object
situation or person, on a scale of like – dislike or
favorable - unfavorable,
 When there are several alternatives to choose
among liking is expressed in terms of preference for
one alternative over another
 Cognitive component
 Represents one’s awareness of and knowledge
about an object.
 Behavioral component
 Behavioral expectations are included in these
components
TYPES OF ATTITUDE MEASURING
1. Single item scale
 single item scales are those that have
only one item to measure a construct.
2. Itemized category scale
 Under itemized category scale there
are different categories form which
respondents can choose to indicate their
overall level of satisfaction . Category
scale is a sensitive measure tan a scale
with only two response categories
Example: very satisfied, quite satisfied,
somewhat satisfied, not at all satisfied
TYPES OF ATTITUDE MEASURING
Another version of the itemized category scale
would label the category
 Compare to private clinics in the area, the
doctors in private practice provide a quality of
medical care which is
Excellent, very Good, Good, Fair, Poor
4. Rank order scales
 the ordinal scale is used for ranking in most
market research studies . Ordinal scales are used
to ascertain the consumer perceptions preferences
etc
Lux 1
Liril 2
Cinthol 3
Lifebuoy 4
 TYPES OF ATTITUDE MEASURING
 5.Paired – comparison scales
 Here a respondent is asked to show his preferences form
among five brands of coffee
 Paired comparison scale is a measurement technique
that involves presenting the respondent with two
objects and asking the respondent to pick the preferred
object.
 6.Likert scales
 Likert scale is a measure of attitudes designed to allow
respondents to indicate how strongly they agree or
disagree with carefully constructed statements that
range form very positive to very negative toward an
attitudinal object
 Strongly disagree, disagree ,uncertain, agree, strongly
agree
 TYPES OF ATTITUDE MEASURING
7.Multi-dimensional scaling :
 Multiple-item scales are attitude scales towards complex
objects such as health plans, automobiles, credit
instruments, or transportation modes have many facets
8. Semantic differential scales
 Semantic differential scale is an attitude measure consisting
of a series of seven point bipolar rating scales allowing
response to a concept . This popular attitude measurement
technique consists of presenting an identification of a
company, product, brand job or other concepts.
 Fast …………..slow

 Intellectual …………emotional

 Busy ……………lazy
FACTOR ROTATION- TYPES
Rotations that allow for correlation are called
OBLIQUE ROTATION

Rotation that assume that factors are not correlated are

called ORTHOGONAL ROTATION
EXAMPLE OF
ORTHOGONAL
ROTATION