Energy Metabolism

Focus on the Learning Objectives

• Define anabolic and catabolic reactions, and give an example of each
• Define ATP, and describe its 3 major functions in the body.
• Besides ATP, list the other 2 compounds produced in cells after food is
completely metabolized.
• Identify the 3 major metabolic pathways through which the macronutrients are
converted into energy.
• Identify where energy metabolism occurs in the cell.
• Examine the general differences in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins to usable energy components (ATP).
• Define ketosis and describe the conditions in which it occurs.
• Describe the consequences of consuming an excessive amount of any
macronutrient (in excess of the body's energy/calorie needs)
• Explain, in general terms, what happens to the metabolic pathways during
feasting, fasting, and prolonged fasting (starvation).
 Nourishing Your Cells
In order to function properly,
your body’s cells require a
continuous supply of:
 Energy (from CHO, fat, protein)
 Building supplies (amino acids,
minerals)
 Chemical regulators (vitamins)
 Water
A Typical Cell
Metabolism
“the entire network of chemical processes
involved in maintaining life and
encompasses all of the sequences of
chemical reactions that occur in the body
[cells]”
Vocabulary
Pathway
 progression of metabolic chemical reactions
Intermediates
 compounds formed from a pathway
Anabolism

Anabolic pathways:
 Building of compounds
 Uses energy
Catabolism

Catabolic pathways:
 Breaking down compounds
 Releases energy
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Forming/Using ATP
Why Do We Need ATP?
Used for energy-
requiring processes
How Do We Make ATP?
Energy Metabolism Overview
Carbohydrate
Glycolysis ↓
 Glucose to pyruvate Glucose
 Uses and generates ATP
 Reversible, but requires ATP ↕

TCA cycle (Krebs or citric acid cycle) Pyruvate

 Irreversible conversion of pyruvate to ↓
acetyl CoA
 Cycle generates NADH, FADH2, GTP,
Acetyl CoA
CO2 ↓
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) TCA cycle
 Oxidative phosphorylation
↓
 NADH, FADH2 converted to ATP
 H2O generated ETC
Final products ↓
ATP, CO2, H2O
Energy
Metabolism
Overview
Site of Energy Metabolism
 Glucose enters cell….
Glucose

Plasma
membrane Mitochondrion

Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
 Glycolysis occurs in cell cytoplasm…
Glycolysis Pyruvate
Glucose

ATP

NADH

Plasma Mitochondrion
membrane
Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
 Pyruvate enters mitochondria, and is
irreversibly converted to acetyl CoA
Glycolysis Pyruvate
Glucose

ATP
NADH
Acetyl-CoA
NADH

Plasma Mitochondrion
membrane
Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
 TCA cycle (a.k.a. Krebs cycle)
occurs inside mitochondria
Glycolysis Pyruvate
Glucose

ATP
NADH
Acetyl-CoA
NADH

Krebs ATP
cycle
NADH

Plasma Mitochondrion
membrane
Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
CO2
 ETC in mitochondrial membrane
Glycolysis Pyruvate
Glucose

ATP
NADH
Acetyl-CoA
NADH
H2O
Krebs ATP
cycle
NADH tem
ys
s p ort s
t ron tran
El e c
Plasma Mitochondrion
membrane
Cytoplasm
ATP

Extracellular fluid
CO2 O2
Glycolysis: Glucose Metabolism
“Breaking down
glucose”
Cell takes one 6-C
glucose molecule and
breaks it down into
two 3-C pyruvate
molecules
 Glycolysis
A series of chemical
reactions
Catalyzed by enzymes
Degrades monosaccharides
Generates energy
Glycolysis: Sources of Glucose
Glucose can be derived from:
 Dietary carbohydrates
 Body glycogen stores

 Some amino acids, glycerol

 Lactate (produced under anaerobic conditions)

 Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA

Irreversible reaction*
Loss of a CO2 from
pyruvate (3C to 2C)
Acetyl CoA then
enters TCA cycle
TCA Cycle
Acetyl-CoA (2 C) combines with
oxaloacetate (4 C) to form citrate (6 C)
When cycle is complete, citrate (6 C) is
broken down to oxaloacetate (4 C) again
CO2 released, leaves the body via lungs
TCA cycle produces: NADH, FADH2
TCA Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
One cycle produces:
 3 NADH
 1 FADH2
 1 GTP
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Converts energy trapped in NADH & FADH2 to
ATP (and H2O)
NADH, FADH2 transfer H+ and e− to electron
carrier molecules (FMN, cytochromes)
Electrons are donated from one cytochrome to the
next
Also called oxidative phosphorylation
Regenerates NAD+ and FAD for TCA cycle
ETC: NADH to ATP
Summary of ETC
 Theoretical ATP Yield
Glucose
2 ATP
2 ATP Glycolysis

2 NADH 4 ATP
Pyruvate

2 NADH 6 ATP
Acetyl-CoA

2 ATP

Krebs 6 NADH 18 ATP

cycle
2 NADH 4 ATP

Total net ATP yield = 36 ATP

Energy Metabolism Overview
Carbohydrate Triglycerides
↓
↓
Glucose
↓
Glycerol Fatty acids
↕
Pyruvate
↓
Acetyl CoA
↓
TCA cycle
↓
ETC
↓

ATP, CO2, H2O

Energy Metabolism Overview
Carbohydrate Triglycerides
↓
↓
Glucose
↓
Glycerol Fatty acids
↕

↓
Pyruvate

↓
↓
↓
Acetyl CoA
↓
TCA cycle
↓
ETC
↓

ATP, CO2, H2O

Lipolysis: Metabolism of FA
Fatty acids
cleaved at β
carbon
Progressively
broken down into
2 C molecules –
acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA
enters TCA cycle
when energy is
needed
 Complete Oxidation of Fat
Requires Some Carbohydrate
Fatty acid oxidation (“fat burning”) works
best when carbohydrate is available
For FA oxidation product, acetyl CoA, to
enter TCA, oxaloacetate must be available
Oxaloacetate is derived from pyruvate
Pyruvate is derived from glucose
(carbohydrate)
“Burning” Fat Requires Carb
Ketone Body Formation
Ketone bodies are
products of incomplete
fatty acid oxidation
Low CHO intake,
insufficient insulin
Acetyl CoA can’t enter
TCA cycle
Acetyl CoA molecules
accumulate, form ketones
or ketone bodies
Can be reversed with
consumption of
carbohydrates
 Ketosis Can Occur When Fasting
Fasting--no CHO intake,
Fatty acids flood the liver
Acetyl-CoA
Many Acetyl-CoA Limited Acetyl CoA
Lack of carbohydrates
Fatty acids flood the blood
stream
No glucose to produce
oxaloacetate
TCA cycle stops
Acetyl CoA builds up
More ketones produced

Ketones, TCA
Ketones, ketones, Cycle
Low Carb Diets Induce Ketosis
 Ketosis Can Occur With Diabetes
Insufficient insulin Not enough insulin
produced
CHO metabolism limited
No glucose to produce
Fatty acids flood the liver
oxaloacetate
TCA cycle stops
Acetyl CoA builds up
Acetyl-CoA More ketones produced;
spill into urine
Many Acetyl-CoA Limited
Blood becomes acidic
Diabetic coma, death
Acetyl-CoA
Ketones, ketones TCA
Cycle
Urine
 Energy Metabolism Overview
Protein Carbohydrate Triglycerides
↓
↓ ↓
↓
Amino acids Glucose
Glycerol Fatty acids
↕

↓
Pyruvate

↓
↓
↓
Acetyl CoA
↓
TCA cycle
↓
ETC
↓

ATP, CO2, H2O

 Energy Metabolism Overview
Protein Carbohydrate Triglycerides
↓
↓ ↓
↓
Amino acids Glucose
Glycerol Fatty acids
↕

↓
↓
Pyruvate
↓ ↓

↓
↓

↓
↓
↓ ↓

Acetyl CoA
↓

↓
TCA cycle
↓

↓
ETC
↓

ATP, CO2, H2O

Amino Acid Metabolism
How do these metabolic reactions
flow under each of these conditions?

Feasting – eating in excess

Fasting – food deprivation
Starving – prolonged deprivation
Economics of Feasting
When a person overeats, or eats in excess of their
body’s energy (calorie) needs, their body stores a
little glycogen, and a lot of fat.
 Feasting:
Energy Metabolism Overview
Protein Carbohydrate Triglycerides
↓
↓ ↓ ↓
Amino acids Glucose
Glycerol Fatty acids

↓
↓ ↕
↓
Pyruvate

↓
↓ ↓

↓
↓ ↓
↓

↓
↓
↓ ↓

Acetyl CoA

↓
↓

↓
↓

↓
Χ
TCA cycle
↓

Χ
ETC
Χ

ATP, CO2, H2O

 Economics of Fasting
When macronutrients from a meal are no longer
available to provide energy (starting about 2-3 h
after finishing a meal), the body draws on its
glycogen and fat stores for energy (ATP).
How Long Will Glycogen Last?
Body’s glycogen stores may be depleted after 1 hr of strenuous
exercise or 24 hours of fasting; most restored over half day, full
restoration required 2 days
 Economics of Starvation
Glycogen stores are depleted after 24 h of starvation
Body begins to break down protein to amino acids to
produce glucose (to supply brain, nervous system, RBCs)
Fatty acids converted to ketones (alternate energy source
for cells), which slows breakdown of body proteins
As Starvation Continues…
Glucose still needed for blood and some brain cells
Protein meets glucose needs
Wasting metabolism
Shift to ketosis
 Suppression of appetite
 Slowing of metabolism
Adaptations to prolonged fast can maintain life for
up to 2 months
Acceptable Macronutrient
Distribution Range (AMDR)

All 3 macronutrients are required in adequate

amounts to meet body’s energy needs
Recommended distribution of calories:
 Protein = 10-35%
 CHO = 45-65%

 Fat = 20-35%
Metabolism of Macronutrients