Semiconductors

Semiconductor Physics
Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,

Dependence of Fermi level on carrier-
concentration and temperature (equilibrium
carrier statistics),
Carrier generation and recombination,
Carrier transport: diffusion and drift,
p-n junction, Metal-semiconductor junction
(Ohmic and Schottky).
Semiconductor materials of interest for
optoelectronic devices.
2 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

Semiconductor
The material which has electrical conductivity between that of

a conductor and that of an insulator is called as semiconductor.
Silicon, germanium and graphite are some examples of
semiconductors. Semiconductors are the foundation of modern
electronics, including transistors, Light-Emitting diodes, solar
cells etc.

Charge carriers in Semiconductors
Electrons and holes
• In the absence of thermal excitations, the valence band is

completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty.
Thus, the material cannot conduct electricity.
• As the temperature increases, some electrons will be thermally

exited into the empty conduction band, result in the creation of a
free electron in the conduction band and a free hole in the valence
band.

In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between valence band and
conduction band is very small. It has a forbidden gap of about < 3
electron volt (eV).
At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied
with electrons and conduction band is empty because the
electrons in the valence band does not have enough energy to
move in to conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor behaves
as an insulator at low temperature.
However, at room temperature some of the electrons in valence
band gains enough energy in the form of heat and moves in to
conduction band. When the valence electrons moves in to
conduction band they becomes free electrons. These electrons are
not attached to the nucleus of a atom, So they moves freely.

The conduction band electrons are responsible for electrical
conductivity. The measure of ability to conduct electric current
is called as electrical conductivity.
When the temperature is goes on increasing, the number of
valence band electrons moving in to conduction band is also
increases. This shows that electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor increases with increase in temperature. i.e. a
semiconductor has negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance. The resistance of semiconductor decreases with
increase in temperature.
In semiconductors, electric current is carried by two types of
charge carriers they are electrons and holes.

Hole
The absence of electron in a particular

place in an atom is called as hole.
Hole is a electric charge carrier which
has positive charge. The
electric charge of hole is equal to
electric charge of electron but have
opposite polarity.
When a small amount of external

energy is applied, then the electrons in
the valence band moves in to
conduction band and leaves a vacancy
in valence band. This vacancy is
called as hole.
Intrinsic semiconductor
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.

Silicon and germanium are the most common examples of
intrinsic semiconductors. Both these semiconductors are
most frequently used in the manufacturing of transistors,
diodes and other electronic components.
Intrinsic semiconductor is also called as undoped
semiconductor or I-type semiconductor. In intrinsic
semiconductor the number of electrons in the conduction
band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band.
Therefore the overall electric charge of a atom is neutral.

Atomic structure of silicon and germanium
The atomic structure of intrinsic semiconductor materials
like silicon and germanium is as follows.
Atomic structure of silicon

Silicon is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the
same number of protons. The atomic number of silicon is 14
i.e. 14 protons. The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is called atomic number. Silicon atom has 14 electrons
(two electrons in first orbit, eight electrons in second orbit
and 4 electrons in the outermost orbit).

Atomic structure of germanium
Germanium is a substance consisting of atoms which all

have the same number of protons. The atomic number of
germanium is 32 i.e. 32 protons. The number of protons in
the nucleus of atom is called atomic number. Germanium
has 32 electrons ( 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 electrons in
second orbit, 18 electrons in third orbit and 4 electrons in
the outermost orbit.

Covalent bonding in silicon
The outermost shell of atom is capable to hold up to eight
electrons. The atom which has eight electrons in the outermost
orbit is said to be completely filled and most stable. But the
outermost orbit of silicon has only four electrons. Silicon atom
needs four more electrons to become most stable. Silicon atom
forms four covalent bonds with the four neighboring atoms. In
covalent bonding each valence electron is shared by two atoms.
When silicon atoms comes close to each other, each

valence electron of atom is shared with the neighboring atom and
each valence electron of neighboring atom is shared with this
atom. Likewise each atom will share four valence electrons with
the four neighboring atoms and four neighboring atoms will share
each valence electron with this atom. Therefore, total eight
electrons are shared.
Electron and hole current
In conductors current is caused by only motion of electrons but in
semiconductors current is caused by both electrons in conduction band
and holes in valence band.
Current that is caused by electron motion is called electron current and
current that is caused by hole motion is called hole current. Electron is a
negative charge carrier whereas hole is a positive charge carrier.
At absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor behaves as
insulator. However, at room temperature the electrons present in the
outermost orbit absorb thermal energy. When the outermost orbit
electrons get enough energy then they will break bonding with the
nucleus of atom and jumps in to conduction band. The electrons present
in conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of an atom so they are
free to move.
When the valence electron moves from valence band to the conduction
band a vacancy is created in the valence band where electron left. Such
vacancy is called hole.
Conduction in intrinsic semiconductor
The total current in intrinsic semiconductor is the sum of hole and

electron current.
Total current = Electron current + Hole current
I = Ihole+ Ielectron
Carrier Concentration
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the
number of holes and free electrons are the
same because they are thermally
generated.
If an electron breaks its covalent bond we
have one free electron and one hole.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the
concentration of holes and free electrons
are the same.

Intrinsic Semiconductors
ni
= the concentration of free electrons in an
intrinsic semiconductor.
= the concentration of holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor.

Intrinsic Carrier
Concentration
3   Eg 
ni  BT 2
exp 
 2 KT 
B and Eg are determined by the properties
of the semiconductor.
Eg = band gap energy (eV)
B = material constant
 # 
 

cm 3
 
 o
K
3 
2

Intrinsic Carrier
Concentration
3   Eg 
ni  BT 2
exp 
 2 KT 
T = temperature (ºK)
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 86.2×10-6 eV/ºK

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
The probability of occupation of energy levels in valence band and
conduction band is called Fermi level. At absolute zero temperature
intrinsic semiconductor acts as perfect insulator. However as the
temperature increases free electrons and holes gets generated.
In intrinsic or pure semiconductor, the number of holes in valence
band is equal to the number of electrons in the conduction band.
Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels in conduction
band and valence band are equal.
Therefore, the Fermi level for the
intrinsic semiconductor lies in the
middle of forbidden band.
Fermi level in the middle of forbidden band indicates equal concentration of free electrons and holes
Extrinsic semiconductor
When the impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, it
becomes an extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding
impurities to the semiconductor is called doping. Doping
increases the electrical conductivity of semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than
intrinsic semiconductor. Hence the extrinsic semiconductors are
used for the manufacturing of electronic devices such as diodes,
transistors etc. The number of free electrons and holes in
extrinsic semiconductor are not equal.
Types of impurities
Two types of impurities are added to the semiconductor. They are
pentavalent and trivalent impurities.

Classification of extrinsic semiconductors based on impurities
added
Based on the type of impurities added, extrinsic semiconductors are
classified in to two types.
• n-type
• p-type

Extrinsic Semiconductors
The most common group 5 elements are
phosphorous and arsenic.
Group 5 elements have 5 electrons in
the valence shell.
Four of the electrons fill the covalent
bonds in the silicon crystal structure.
The 5th electron is loosely bound to the
impurity atom and is a free electron at
room temperature.

Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
-
Si Si P Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si

The group 5 atom is called a donor
impurity since it donates a free electron.
The group 5 atom has a net positive charge
that is fixed in the crystal lattice and
cannot move.
With a donor impurity, free electrons are
created without adding holes.

Adding impurities is called doping.
A semiconductor doped with donor
impurities has excess free electron and is
called an n-type semiconductor.

The most common group 3 impurity is
boron which has 3 valence electrons.
Since boron has only 3 valence electrons,
the boron atom can only bond with three of
its neighbors leaving one open bond
position.

Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si B Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si

At room temperature, silicon has free
electrons that will fill the open bond
position, creating a hole in the silicon atom
whence it came.
The boron atom has a net negative charge
because of the extra electron, but the
boron atom cannot move.

Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
+
Si Si B Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si

Since boron accepts a valence electron, it
is called an acceptor impurity.
Acceptor impurities create excess holes but
do not create free electrons.
A semiconductor doped with an acceptor
impurity has extra holes and is called a p-
type semiconductor.

Carrier Concentrations
For any semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium nopo=ni2, where
no = the concentration of free electrons.
po = the concentration of holes.
ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration
3   Eg 
ni  BT 2
exp 
 2 KT 

Extrinsic Carrier
Concentrations
For an n-type semiconductor with donor

impurities, the concentration of donor
impurities is Nd with units #/cm3.
If Nd >> ni, then the concentration of free
electrons in the n-type semiconductor is
approximately no  Nd.

Extrinsic Carrier
Concentrations
Since nopo=ni2 for any semiconductor in
thermal equilibrium, and
For an n-type semiconductor, n o  Nd
2
ni
po 
Nd
Where po is the concentration of holes in
the n-type semiconductor.

Extrinsic Carrier
Concentrations
For a p-type semiconductor with acceptor

impurities, the concentration of acceptor
impurities is Na with units #/cm3.
If Na >> ni, then the concentration of holes
in the p-type semiconductor is
approximately po  Na.

Extrinsic Carrier
Concentrations
Since nopo=ni2 for any semiconductor in
thermal equilibrium, and
For a p-type semiconductor, p o  Na
2
ni
no 
Na
Where no is the concentration of free
electrons in the p-type semiconductor.

Charge carriers

Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductors

Probability of occupancy
Under the condition of thermal equilibrium, the probability that

a given state of energy E is occupied by an electron is
determined by the Fermi function.
1
f (E) 
exp[( E  E f ) / k BT ]  1
Ef: Fermi level, the energy level for which the probability of occupancy
is 1/2.
f(E) is not itself a probability distribution, and it does not integrate to

unity; rather it is a sequence of occupation probabilities of successive
energy levels.
Probability of occupancy of an energy state in a metal
1
f (E) 
exp[( E  E f ) / k BT ]  1
(a) Probability of state whose energy is 0.1 eV above the

Fermi energy at 800 K

E E
T>0 T=0
Kf(E) K
Ec Ec Ec
Ef Eg Ef Ef
Ev Ev Ev
1-f(E)
0 0.5 1 f(E) 0 0.5 1 f(E)
Figure 8 The Fermi function f(E) is the probability that an energy level E is filled with an
electron; 1-f(E) is the probability that it is empty. In the valence band, 1-f(E) is the probability that
energy level E is occupied by a hole. At T=0K, f(E)=1 for E<Ef, and f(E)=0 for E>Ef, i.e., there
are no electrons in the conduction band and no holes in the valence band.

E E
Ec n(E)
E ED
Ef
Donor level
Ev p(E)
0 1 f(E) Carrier
concentration
Figure 10 Energy-band diagram, Fermi function f(E), and concentrations of mobile

electrons and holes n(E) and p(E) in an n-type semiconductor.
The Fermi level is above the middle of the bandgap

E E
Ec p(E)
E
Acceptor level
Ef
EA
Ev n(E)
0 1 f(E) Carrier
concentration
Figure 11 Energy-band diagram, Fermi function f(E), and concentrations of mobile

electrons and holes n(E) and p(E) in an p-type semiconductor
The Fermi level is below the middle of the bandgap

Law of mass action
Thus n  p  ni for intrinsic semiconductor
Therefore the law of mass action can be written as:
np  n 2
i
The law of mass action is useful for determining the concentrations
of electrons and holes in doped semiconductors.
Physics Dr.
Probability of jumping of electron to conduction band
 Eg 
N  N 0 exp   
k
 B  T
Estimate the probability of electron jumping to
conduction band
1.Insulator (Eg = 5.5 eV)
2.Semiconductor say Si (Eg = 1.1), Ge (Eg = 0.7 eV)

How to calculate the number of conduction electrons
m
N0  NA
Mol.mass
Estimate the no of conduction e in a cube of Mg of volume

2*10-6 m3
Mg is bivalent, density 1.738 g/cm3, M = 24.31

Probability of occupancy of an energy state in a metal
 Ec  E f   E f  Ev 
n  N c exp    p  N v exp   
 k B T   k B T 
In an n type semiconductor Fermi level shifted towards
conduction level and at a separation of 0.1 eV. Find the no of
electron at this at 800 K
What happen if gap if 0.01 eV
E ED
Donor level

Heat & light effect on conductors and
semiconductors

Discovery

Principles
Mobile charges pressed to one side from
Lorentz force, immobile charges unaltered
Creates internal electric potential, known

as Hall voltage.
For simple metals, V =
t is the thickness of the metal along the direction of the B-

field

A Visual Representation

Hall Coefficient
Magnitude parameter:
In metals:
In semiconductors:

Applications
Measurement can tell about charge carrier
mobility, concentration
Conversely, knowing the above allows for

sensitive measurement of an external B-
field
Resistant to outside contaminants unlike

optical, electromechanical testing

The hall effect
•Lorentz Force:
F = q[E + (v x B)]
•Hall voltage is produced by charge accumulation on

sidewalls
•Charge accumulation balances Lorentz Force
•Charge accumulation increases resistance

When electrons flow without magnetic
field...
t semiconductor slice
+ _
d
I I

When the magnetic field is turned on ...
I qBv
B-field
As time goes
by...
high
potential
qE
low
qBv = qE potential
Finally...
VH
I
B-field
More scientifically

Hall Coefficient
• A voltmeter connected across the conductor can be

used to measure the potential difference across the
conductor, known as the Hall voltage VH
• When equilibrium is reached between the electric

force q·E and the magnetic force q·vd·B, the electric
field produced between the positive and negative
charges is referred to as the Hall field, EH, therefore,
q·EH = q·vd·B.

Hall Coefficient
EH = vd·B
• If d is taken to be the width of the conductor, then
the Hall voltage VH measured by the voltmeter is:
VH  E H  d  v d  B  d
• The measured Hall voltage gives a value for the drift
velocity of the charge carriers if d and B are known

Hall Coefficient
• The number of charge carriers per unit volume

(charge density), n, can also be determined by
measuring the current in the conductor:
I IBd
vd  VH 
nq A nq A
• Area A = thickness t·d, therefore:
IB
VH 
nq t
Hall Coefficient
1
• Hall coefficient, RH =
n q
• The Hall coefficient can be determined from
IB RH  IB
VH  
n qt t
• The sign and magnitude of RH gives the sign of
the charge carriers and their density.

The p-n Junction
P-N junction

Junction
• Homojunctions: junctions between differently

doped regions of a semiconductor material
The p-n junction

• Heterojunctions: junctions between different
semiconductor materials

Figure 16 A p-n junction in thermal equilibrium at T>0K. The depletion-layer, energy-band
diagram, and concentrations (on a logarithmic scale) of mobile electrons n(x) and holes p(x) are
shown as functions of position x. The built-in potential difference V 0 corresponds to an energy
eV0, where e is the magnitude of the electron charge.
1. The depletion layer contains only the fixed charges, the thickness of the
depletion layer in each region is inversely proportional to the
concentration of dopants in the region.
2. The fixed charges created a built-in field obstructs the diffusion of further
mobile carriers.
3. A net built-in potential difference V0 is established.
4. In thermal equilibrium there is only a single Fermi function for the entire
structure so that the Fermi levels in the p- and n- regions must align.
5. No net current flows across the junction.

In semiconductor physics, the
depletion region refers to a
region where flow of charge
carriers are decreased over a
given time and finally results
in empty mobile charge
carriers or full of immobile
charge carriers.
Depletion region is a result of
diffusion

Energy-band and carrier concentrations in a forward-biased
p-n junction.
The biased junction
Forward biased
A misalignment of the Fermi levels in the p- and n-regions
Net current i=isexp(eV/kBT)-is i  i exp  eV   1
s    
  k BT  
Reverse biased
Net current ≈-is as V is negative in exp(eV/kBT) and |V|>>kBT/e
  eV  
i  is exp    1
  k BT  
Acts as a diode with a current-voltage

characteristic

Voltage-Current Characteristic of a
Diode
( V-I Characteristic for forward bias)
-Plot the result of
dynamic resistance r’d decreases as you move up the curve
measurement in Figure 1-
26, you get the V-I
characteristic curve for a
forward bias diode
- VF Increase to the right zero VF  0.7V
I F increase upward bias
-
VF  0.7V
r ' d  VF / I F

Diode
( V-I Characteristic for Reverse bias)
Breakdown
voltage
-not a normal
operation of
pn junction
devices
- the value
can be vary
for typical Si Reverse
Current

Diode
( Complete V-I Characteristic curve)
Combine-Forward bias
& Reverse bias  Complete
V-I characteristic curve

Advantages of p-n junction
diode
p-n junction diode is the simplest form of all the
semiconductor devices. However, diodes plays a major
role in many electronic devices.
A p-n junction diode can be used to convert the
alternating current (AC) to the direct current (DC).
These diodes are used in power supply devices.
If the diode is forward biased, it allows the current
flow. On the other hand, if it is reverse biased, it blocks
the current flow. In other words, the p-n junction diode
becomes on when it is forward biased whereas the p-n
junction diode becomes off when it is reversed biased
(I.e. it acts as switch). Thus, the p-n junction diode is
used as electronic switch in digital logic circuits.

Light Emitting Diodes
 An important kind of diode is the light-emitting
diode (LED). Whenever an electron makes a
transition from the conduction band to the
valence band (effectively recombining the
electron and hole) there is a release of energy in
the form of a photon In some materials the energy
levels are spaced so that the photon is in the
visible part of the spectrum. In that case, the
continuous flow of current through the LED results
in a continuous
Schematic of an LED. A photon stream
is released asof nearly monochromatic
an electron falls from the conduction band to
light.
the valence band. The band gap may be large
enough that the photon will be in the visible
portion of the spectrum.
81
Photovoltaic Cells
 An exciting application closely related to the LED is the solar
cell, also known as the photovoltaic cell. Simply put, a solar
cell takes incoming light energy and turns it into electrical
energy. A good way to think of the solar cell is to consider the
LED in reverse . A pn-junction diode can absorb a photon of solar
radiation by having an electron make a transition from the
valence band to the conduction band. In doing so, both a
conducting electron and a hole have been created. If a circuit is
connected to the pn junction, the holes and electrons will move
so as to create an electric current, with positive current flowing
from the p side to the n side. Even though the efficiency of most
solar cells is low, their widespread use could potentially generate
significant amounts of electricity. There has been tremendous
progress in recent years toward making solar cells more efficient.
(a) Schematic of a photovoltaic cell. Note the similarity to Figure 11.17. (b) A schematic showing more of the working
82 parts of a real photovoltaic cell. From H. M. Hubbard, Science 244, 297-303 (21 April 1989).
Photovoltaics/ Solar cells
Using the sun to generate

electricity

An increasingly popular use of solar energy involves solar
electric systems, called photovoltaics.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight directly into

electricity, and are potentially one of the most useful of the
renewable energy technologies.

The heart of a photovoltaic system is a solid-state device
called a solar cell

Cross Section of Solar Cell

How Solar Cells Work
1. Photons in sunlight hit the
solar panel and are

absorbed
by semiconducting materials,
such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged)
are
knocked loose from their
atoms, allowing
them to flow
through the material to
Physics of Photovoltaic
Generation
n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
+ + + +
- - - - -
p-type
semiconductor

1. Calculate the energy band gap in an element X which is
transparent to radiation of wavelength greater than 11000 A 0.
2. The energy band gap in germanium is about 0.75 eV. What
is the wavelength at which germanium starts absorbing light?
3. A silver wire is in the form of a ribbon 0.50 cm wide and
0.10mm thick. When a current of 2 A passes through the
ribbon, perpendicular to 0.80 T magnetic field. Calculate the
Hall voltage produced. Given: the density of silver = 10.5
g/cc.
4. A rectangular copper strip 1.5 cm wide and 0.10 cm thick
carries a current of 5.0 A. Find the Hall voltage for a 1.2 T
magnetic field applied in a direction perpendicular to the
strip.
5. Determine the concentration of holes in SI crystals having
donor concentration of 1.4 x 1024 /m3.
6. When the intrinsic carrier is 1.4 x 1018/ m3. Find the ratio of
electron to hole concentration.

Semiconductors

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Semiconductors

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Semiconductor Physics

Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,

2 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

The material which has electrical conductivity between that of

3 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

Electrons and holes

• In the absence of thermal excitations, the valence band is

• As the temperature increases, some electrons will be thermally

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8 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

The absence of electron in a particular

When a small amount of external

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.

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Atomic structure of silicon

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Germanium is a substance consisting of atoms which all

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When silicon atoms comes close to each other, each

The total current in intrinsic semiconductor is the sum of hole and

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For an n-type semiconductor with donor

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For a p-type semiconductor with acceptor

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Under the condition of thermal equilibrium, the probability that

f(E) is not itself a probability distribution, and it does not integrate to

(a) Probability of state whose energy is 0.1 eV above the

42 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

0 0.5 1 f(E) 0 0.5 1 f(E)

43 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

Figure 10 Energy-band diagram, Fermi function f(E), and concentrations of mobile

The Fermi level is above the middle of the bandgap

Figure 11 Energy-band diagram, Fermi function f(E), and concentrations of mobile

The Fermi level is below the middle of the bandgap

Thus n  p  ni for intrinsic semiconductor

Therefore the law of mass action can be written as:

47 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

Estimate the no of conduction e in a cube of Mg of volume

48 Dr. Neeru Bhagat 03/24/20

What happen if gap if 0.01 eV

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