Dairy and Food Engineering

COURSE NO.: PRFE 332 CREDIT HOURS: 3(2+1)

PJTS AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, KANDI, SANGAREDDY
DEPARTMENT OF PROCESSING AND FOOD ENGINEERING
 Dairy and Food Engineering

Lecture No. 1
Deterioration in food products and their controls,
physical, chemical, and biological methods of food
preservation - description - principles of food
preservation - food preservation methods - causes of
food spoilage and classification of food with respect to
spoilage and consumption
Deterioration in food products and their controls

During storage and distribution, foods are exposed

to a wide range of environmental conditions

Pressure, temperature, humidity, oxygen, and light -

 trigger several reactions that may lead to food degradation.
 foods may be altered to such an extent that they are either
rejected by or harmful to the consumer.
 Causes

Condensation of moisture on foods or a damp atmosphere favors

microbial growth
promotes insects development, and may indirectly lead to
deterioration, resulting in destructive self-heating

Mechanical damage (e.g., bruises and wounds) is conducive to

spoilage, and causes further chemical and microbial deterioration

 Peels, skins, and shells constitute natural protection against this kind of spoilage.

In case of frozen foods, fluctuating temperatures are often

destructive
 re-crystallization of ice cream, leading to an undesirable sandy texture.
Classification of MOs based on temperature

Each microorganism has an optimum temperature at

which it grows best
 a minimum temperature below which growth no longer takes
place
 a maximum temperature above which all development is
suppressed

Bacteria classification based on temperature

 Psychrophilic (cryophilic) or low-temperature organisms – below
20°C
 Mesophilic Bacteria - an optimum temperature of 20°C–45°C

 Thermophilic - temperature above 45°C

Microbial growth in foods results in food spoilage with the
development of undesirable sensory characteristics
 become unsafe for consumption.
Microorganisms have the ability to multiply at high rates
when favorable conditions are present.

Chemical contaminants are also of concern in food

deterioration
 Chemicals from packaging materials
 Several chemical changes occur during the processing and storage of
foods cause the food to deteriorate by reducing its sensory and
nutritional quality
Many enzymatic reactions change the quality of
foods
 Fruits when cut tend to brown rapidly at room temperature
due to the reaction of phenolase with cell constituents released
in the presence of oxygen
 In addition to temperature, other environmental factors such
as oxygen, water, and pH induce deleterious changes in foods
that are catalyzed by enzymes.
The presence of unsaturated fatty acids in foods is a
prime reason for the development of rancidity
during storage as long as oxygen is available.
While development of off-flavors is markedly
noticeable in rancid foods, the generation of free
radicals during the autocatalytic process leads to
other undesirable reactions
 loss of vitamins, alteration of color, and degradation of
proteins.
The presence of oxygen in the immediate vicinity of
food leads to increased rates of oxidation
Water plays an important role
 lipid oxidation occurs at high rates at very low water activities
Some chemical reactions are induced by light
 loss of vitamins and browning of meats.
Non enzymatic browning
 major cause of quality change and degradation of the
nutritional content of many foods
 Occurs due to the interaction between reducing sugars and
amino acids, resulting in the loss of protein solubility,
darkening of lightly colored dried products, and development
of bitter flavors
 Environmental factors such as temperature, water activity, and
pH have an influence on non enzymatic browning
 Sources of microbial contamination

Soil, water, air, and animals (insects, rodents, and

humans)
The major causes of quality loss are shown in Table.
In preservation, each factor needs to be controlled or
maintained to a desired level
The major causes of food spoilage are
microorganisms and natural enzymes
Insects and rodents also play a role in food spoilage.
 Microorganisms

Foods are normally contaminated with microorganisms.

They are present in the soil. Water and air, on the skin of
cattle and the feathers of poultry and within the intestine
and all other cavities of the animal body.
They are also present on the skin and peel of fruits and
vegetables and hull of grains and shells of nuts. T
hey are there on all equipment used for cooking, as well as,
on the hands, skin and clothing of persons handling food

They are generally not found within healthy living tissue

such as flesh of animals or the flesh or juice of plants.
Microorganisms include
 bacteria, yeast, moulds, algae, protozoans and others.
Among these bacteria, mould and yeast are the major cause
of food spoilage
They feed on the food in which they live and cause variety of
changes in it.
Most of them are harmful and produce changes which lead to
spoilage of food.
However, some of the microorganisms have desirable effects on
the food
 like in making curds we cultivate bacteria called lactobacillus which give
curd its distinctive flavor
 Vinegar is also a product of bacterial action
 Natural food enzymes

All healthy, food plants and animals have their own set of enzymes
which help in the processes that go on inside the living cells –
 digestion, respiration, germination and so on.
These enzymes continue to remain active even after the plant has
been harvested or the animal slaughtered and the processes they
help will continue
Some of the processes are desirable to a certain degree, for
example the ripening of papaya, custard apple, mangoes and
tomatoes after harvesting.
However, ripening beyond a certain point becomes deterioration
or lowering of quality
 The over-ripe bananas and papayas, are examples of deterioration due to
naturally present enzymes.
 Insects and rodents

They are particularly destructive to cereals grains and to fruits and

vegetables
Worms, bugs, weevils, and moths may damage food items both in the
field, as well as, in storage at home
In addition to eating away the food, they damage it and thereby expose
it to bacterial, yeast and mould infections.
 A small insect hole in a mango can result in the total decay of that mango from
bacterial invasion.
The problem with rodents involves not only the quantity of food they
may consume but also the filth with which they contaminate food.
Rodent urine and droppings harbour several kinds of disease producing
bacteria, which infect human beings. Of the almost 10 per cent losses in
grains at the farm level in our country insects, rodents and birds are
responsible for almost 6 per cent.
Principles of food preservation:
1. By killing the micro-organisms
2. By preventing or delaying the action of micro-
organisms
3. By stopping the action of enzymes
 By killing the micro-organisms

Boiling of milk kills micro-organisms. Sometimes,

heat is applied for a shorter duration to kill only
undesirable micro-organisms, that is those which
can spoil the food stuff.
It is done while pasteurizing milk.
The cooking also keeps food free from
microorganisms.
In canning, (sealing in tins) food is heated to high
temperature to prevent growth of micro-organisms
in food.
 Preventing or delaying the action of micro-
organisms

Peeled apple spoils faster than one with intact skin

 Apple has its skin as a protective covering which prevents the entry
of micro-organisms.
The shell of nuts and eggs, skin of fruits and vegetables
serve as a protective coating and delays the action of
micro-organisms
Food packed in polythene bags and aluminium foils are
also protected against micro-organisms
Micro-organisms need air and water to grow. But if these
are removed, one can prevent the action of
microorganisms and ensure that food does not get spoilt.
Lowering temperature or freezing a food also helps in
delaying the action of micro-organisms and thus in food
preservation
Frozen food can be kept for a longer time than fresh food.
This is because micro-organisms cannot act at low
temperatures.
 putting food in the refrigerator or freezer

Chemicals like sodium benzoate and potassium

metabisulphite also help in preventing the growth of micro-
organisms. These chemicals are called ‘preservatives’.
the action of micro-organisms can be delayed or
prevented in many ways:
by providing a protective covering
by raising the temperature
by lowering the temperature
by adding chemicals
 By stopping the action of enzymes

Enzymes also cause food spoilage. They are naturally present in food.
 Take the example of fruits. Keep a raw banana for a few days, the banana will turn ripe,
become yellow and then start decaying and browning. All this happens due to presence
of enzymes

If the action of enzymes is stopped, the foodstuff will be prevented from
spoiling. Enzyme action can be prevented by giving a mild heat
treatment

Before canning or freezing, vegetables are dipped in hot water or

exposed to steam for a few minutes. This is known as blanching.

When you heat milk, you are not only killing micro-organisms present
in it but also stopping the action of enzymes. This extends its shelf life.
 Food classification with respect to spoilage and
consumption

Classification of food with respect to spoilage:

Non Perishable foods: The foods which do not spoil
unless handled carefully includes such products as
cereals, pulses, flavours, dry beans, sugar etc.
Semi perishable foods: the foods which, when properly
handled and stored will remain unspoiled for a fairly
longer period. Ex: potato, apple onion etc.
Perishable foods: the group includes most of the
important and daily consumed foods. That spoils readily
unless special prevention methods are used. Ex: meat,
fish, poultry, milk, fruits and vegetables etc.
 Classification of foods with respect to human consumption

Foods for human consumption can be divided in to 2 categories.

Food from plants
Cereals, pulses& their products
Sugar & Sugar products
Vegetable &Vegetable products
Fruits & fruit products
Food from animals:
Meat and meat products
Poultry and eggs
Fish & other sea foods
Milk & milk products
Apart from the above there are also spices, mushrooms. Sodium chloride,
flavoring material and chemical preservatives.
 Lecture No. 2

Deterioration in food products and their

controls - effects of pH and water content on
growth of microorganisms, methods of
controlling water content, effect of water
activity, methods of measuring aw, oxidation -
reduction potential effect on microorganisms
 Effect of pH

Every microorganisms has a minimize, maximum &

optimum pH for their growth.
In general yeasts and molds are more acid tolerant
than bacteria.
Molds can grow over a wide range of pH values than
most yeast & bacteria.
A food with an inherently low pH therefore tend to
be more stable microbiologically than a neutral food.
Yeasts are favored in the range of 4.02 to 4.5 pH

The growth of bacteria is near neutral.

The rates of growth are affected and also the rate of survival during the storage is
also affected by pH.

When a set of Microorganisms live on a food, changes the original state of food by
reactions as a result, pH changes.

This altered pH may become unfavorable to the original group of

microorganisms, but may favor the growth of species of microorganisms.

The excellent keeping quality of fruits, soft drinks, fermented milk & pickles are
because of their acidic in nature.

Foods with more Moisture content and less acid are difficult to be stored.
 Effect of moisture content / Water activity

Microorganisms have an absolute demand for water

proper growth can’t occur without it.
Whatever moisture present in the food, all of it is not
directly available for the growth of microorganisms
The water requirement is best expressed intones of
water activity (aW)
Where
aW= Vsol/Vw
Vsol = vapor pressure of solution
Vw= vapor pressure of solvent
Vw is always greater than Vsol, for pure water &
for other solutes, Vw is less than Vsol,
for pure water aw=1.
For other solutions aw is less than 1.0.
Water activity will be in equilibration with the
relative humidity of the storage atmosphere.
Solutes & ions bind with water in solution, therefore on
increase in concentration of dissolved substances such as
sugars & salts occurs with the drying of material.
The water molecules surrounding the solute hold them
more or less firmly
The solution then has a low freezing point than pure water
& lower vapor pressure.
The tied up water has to be extracted out for freezing.
Only the free water exerts vapour pressure. Hence the
solution will show less aw than it should because of
binding effect of the solute.
 Water activity effects

Each microorganisms has its own characteristic, optimum aw and

its own range of aw for a given set of environmental conditions.
The factors effecting moisture requirement of organisms are
 aw, Temp, availability of oxygen, pH, the nutritive properties of substrate,
kind of solute or the toxicity of solute.
An un favorable aw will result not only in reduction in rate of
growth but also lowers the yield of cells.
The more unfavorable aw, the greater the delay in initiation of
growth of germination of spouts.
In general bacteria require more moisture than yeasts & yeast
require more than molds.
 aw mold < aw yeast < aw bacterial
Some microorganisms also grow in high
concentration of solutes. Ex. Sugar & salt have a low
mineral aw.
Osmophilic organisms grow fast in high
concentration of solute.
Osmophilic (microbes which can thrive well in low
aw) - High sugar concentrations.
Halowphilic (salt loving) organisms require minimal
concentration of solutes. i.e. low aw – high salt
concentration
 Methods of controlling aw

Equilibration with controlling solution:

 solution provides a constant RH & aw of food is altered to such
environment.
Determination of the water sorption isotherm for the
food:
 Once the sorption curve is established the amount of water to
be added or removed is known to achieve a specific water
activity in food.
Addition of solutes: salts & sugars are added to
control aw.
 Measuring aw

Freezing point determination: The location of

freezing point gives an idea about aw used with liquid
food.

Manometric Technique: direct measurement of

vapour pressure in vapour stage surrounding food. It
is very accurate method of determination.

Electrical device: Sensors are used to measure RH of

surrounding space which is proportional to aw.
 Oxidation – Reduction (OR) potential effect an
microorganisms

The oxygen tension or partial pressure of O 2 on a food and

the OR potential (reducing & oxidizing power) of the food
influence the type of microorganism which will grow and
hence, the changes produced in food.

Air has a high oxygen tension, but the headspace in an

evacuated can of food has low oxygen tension.
Based on the ability of microorganisms to use free oxygen
they are classified as
 Aerobic, which require free oxygen,
 Anaerobic, which grow best in absence of free oxygen &
 Facultative, those grow well aerobically and anaerobically
Molds are aerobic
most yeasts are anaerobic &
bacteria are facultative
the molds & bacteria has all classes of organisms.
Growth of one organism resists the other.
The OR potential of a system is usually expressed as
Eh. & is measured or expressed in terms of milli volts.
A highly oxidized substrate will have a positive E h &
reduced substrate a negative Eh.
Therefore on aerobic organism requires a positive E h
values & anaerobic microorganisms a negative Eh values.
Most fresh plants or animal foods have low OR potential
Active respiring cells of food products will resist entry of
O2 & hence, in general,
Food products will maintain aerobic condition at the
surface & anaerobic condition at the interior.
 Effect of nutrient content

Nutrients in food, their kind & proportion

determines what organism is most likely to grow.
Foods for microorganisms can be for
 Energy
 Growth
 Accessory food substances are vitamins necessary for energy &
growth
Energy: The carbohydrates especially the sugars are
most commonly wed as an energy source. But other
carbon compounds also fall in the category.
 Ex: Esters, peptides, amino acids, organic acids & their salts.

Growth: Compound from this group include proteins

peptides (iron & ammonia)
Vitamins: some microorganisms are unable to manufacture
some or all vitamins needed & it should be supplied to them
for their growth. Foods from plant & animal will have an array
of vitamins.

Effect of inhibitory substances & biological structures:

(Inhibitory substances may be originally present in food,
added purposely or accidentally or developed by the growth
microorganisms by processing method, or may prevent growth
of all microorganisms). A microorganism growing in food may
produce one or more inhibitory substances to other organisms.
Ex: Natural lysozyme in egg, benzoic acid in berries.
Biological Structure: The inner parts of whole and
healthy tissues of living cells of animals or plants are
either sterile or low in microbial content because of
protection by their outer coat.
 Ex. Shell on eggs, shell on nuts, rind or skin on fruits & vegetables
Artificial coating of plastic or wax on food products.
This physical protection helps in presentation &
deterioration or therefore of spoilage an increase in the
exposed surface - by pealing, chopping or size reduction
may not only distribute the spoilage, also release juices
containing food to the microorganisms.