HOW WATER

ACTIVITY AND PH
WORK TOGETHER
TO CONTROL
MICROBIAL
GROWTH
USING BOTH PH AND Aw CONTROLS MICROBES MORE
EFFECTIVELY THAN JUST ONE OR THE OTHER. Here's how food
manufacturers can use hurdle technology to improve formulations.

Water activity and pH are the two most important intrinsic factors that determine if a
product will support the growth of a spoilage microorganism. Water activity and pH work
synergistically, with their combined effects being more powerful at control than their
individual effects. This synergistic effect is described in detail by hurdle technology for
microbial control and is an intricate part of the FDA’s definition of potentially hazardous
foods.

Here’s how you can use the combined power of water activity and pH to increase microbial
control using milder preservation techniques, which may result in improved product
texture and quality.

How water activity prevents microbial growth

Like all organisms, microorganisms rely on water for growth. They take up water
by moving it across the cell membrane. This water movement mechanism depends on a
water activity gradient—on water moving from a high water activity environment outside
the cell to a lower water activity environment within the cell.

When water activity outside the cell becomes low enough, it causes osmotic stress: the
cell cannot take up water and becomes dormant. The microorganisms are not eliminated,
they just become unable to reproduce. Different organisms cope with osmotic stress in
different ways. That’s why there are different growth limits for each organism. Some types
of molds and yeasts have adapted to withstand very low water activity levels.

Each organism has a specific water activity at which it will stop growing. As
long as product developers keep the water activity below this limit, the microbe
in question won’t replicate to high enough levels to cause infection or illness.

See Table 1.

4
 Typical
aw Bacteria Mold Yeast
Products

fresh meat,
Clostridium fruits,
botulinum E vegetables,
0.97
Pseudomonas canned fruit,
fluorescens canned
vegetables

Escherichia
coli low-salt
Clostridium bacon,
perfringens cooked
0.95
Salmonella sausages,
spp. nasal spray,
Vibrio eye drops
cholerae

Clostridium
botulinum
Stachybotrys
0.94 A, B
atra
Vibrio
parahaemolyticus

some
cheeses,
cured meat
(ham)
bakery goods,
Bacillus Rhizopus
0.93 evaporated
cereus nigricans
milk, ral
liquid
suspensions,
topical
lotions
 suspensions,
topical
lotions

Listeria
0.92
monocytogenes

Bacillus
0.91
subtilis

Staphylococcus
Trichothecium Saccharomyces
0.90 aureus
roseum cerevisiae
(anaerobic)

0.88 Candida

Staphylococcus
0.87 aureus
(aerobic)

sweetened
condensed
milk, aged
cheeses
(cheddar),
fermented
sausage
(salami),
dried meats
Aspergillus (jerky), bacon,
0.85
clavatus most fruit
juice
concentrates,
chocolate
syrup, fruit
cake,
fondants,
cough syrup,
oral analgesic
6 suspensions
 Staphylococcus
0.87 aureus
(aerobic)

sweetened
condensed
milk, aged
cheeses
(cheddar),
fermented
sausage
(salami),
dried meats
Aspergillus (jerky), bacon,
0.85
clavatus most fruit
juice
concentrates,
chocolate
syrup, fruit
cake,
fondants,
cough syrup,
oral analgesic
suspensions

Byssochlamys
0.84
nivea

Penicillium
expansum
Penicillium Deharymoces
0.83
islandicum hansenii
Penicillium
viridicatum

Aspergillus
fumigatus
0.82
Aspergillus
parasiticus

Penicillium Penicillium
cyclopium
0.81
Penicillium
 fumigatus
0.82
Aspergillus
parasiticus

Penicillium Penicillium
cyclopium
0.81
Penicillium
patulum

Saccharomyces
0.80
bailii

Penicillium
0.79
martensii

jam,
marmalade,
marzipan,
Aspergillus glace fruits,
0.78
flavus molasses,
dried figs,
heavily salted
fish

Aspergillus
niger
0.77
Aspergillus
ochraceous

Aspergillus
restrictus
0.75
Aspergillus
candidus

Eurotium
0.71
chevalieri

Eurotium
0.70
 restrictus
0.75
Aspergillus
candidus

Eurotium
0.71
chevalieri

Eurotium
0.70
amstelodami

dried fruits,
corn syrup,
licorice,
Saccharomyces
0.62 marshmallows,
rouxii
chewing
gums, dried
pet foods

Monascus
0.61
bisporus

No
0.60 microbial
proliferation

caramels,
toffees,
No
honey,
0.50 microbial
noodles,
proliferation
topical
ointments

whole egg
No powder,
0.40 microbial cocoa, liquid
proliferation center cough
drop
 noodles,
proliferation
topical
ointments

whole egg
No powder,
0.40 microbial cocoa, liquid
proliferation center cough
drop

crackers,
starch-based
No snack foods,
0.30 microbial cake mixes,
proliferation vitamin
tablets,
suppositories

boiled
No sweets, milk
0.20 microbial powder,
proliferation infant
formula

Table 1. Water activity growth limits for many common microorganisms

Table 1. Water activity growth limits for many common microorganisms

Microbial growth limits make water activity an excellent tool for assuring the safety of
food products, and water activity measurement can be used as a critical control point in
HACCP plans. growth limits make water activity an excellent tool for assuring the
Microbial
safety of food products, and water activity measurement can be used as a
Opportunities
critical control pointfor synergy
in HACCP plans.

The growth limits in Table 1 assume that all other conditions (pH, temperature, etc.) are
optimal for the growth of the organism. If the growth-limiting effects of lowered pH are
Opportunities
combined for synergy
with water activity control, however, microbial growth can actually be controlled
at a higher water activity than shown on the chart.
The growth limits in Table 1 assume that all other conditions (pH, temperature,
What is pH?
etc.) are optimal for the growth of the organism. If the growth-limiting effects
of lowered pH are combined with water activity control, however, microbial
growth can actually be controlled at a higher water activity than shown on the
pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Values between 0 and 7
chart.
indicate acidity; values between 7 and 14 indicate alkalinity. Distilled water, which is
neutral, has a pH of 7. Foods tend to be either neutral or acidic.

What is pH?
 Microbes have pH growth limits
Microbes
Just as withhave pH growth
water activity, limits
microorganisms have pH limits below which they
will not grow. Table 2 shows the minimum pH limits for the growth of different
Justtypes of water
as with microorganisms. All microorganisms
activity, microorganisms have pHprefer
limits abelow
neutral pH they
which for optimum
will not grow.
growth, but they can grow in more acidic pH values. Most of them stop
Table 2 shows the minimum pH limits for the growth of different types of microorganisms.growing
at a pH of 5.0. Some
All microorganisms prefermicroorganisms can go asgrowth,
a neutral pH for optimum low as but
4.6 they
and even down
can grow in to
more
acidic pHHistorically,
4.4. values. Most of them
a pH of 4.6stop
wasgrowing at a pH
considered to of
be5.0.
theSome
lowermicroorganisms
growth limit, butcan go
as low
portions of the food code were changed when it was discovered that to
as 4.6 and even down to 4.4. Historically, a pH of 4.6 was considered be the lower
some
growth limit, but portions
problematic microbesofcan
thegrow
food in
code
pH were
levelschanged
as low aswhen4.2.it was discovered that
some problematic microbes can grow in pH levels as low as 4.2.

Microorganisms Minimum Optimum Maximum

Clostridium
5.5-5.8 7.2 8.9
perfringens

Vibrio vulnificus 5 7.8 10.2

Racillus cereus 4.9 6-7 8.8

Campylobacter
4.9 6.5-7.5 9
spp.

Shigella spp. 4.9 9.3

Vibrio
4.8 7.8-8.6 11
parahaemolyticus

Clostridium
4.6 8.5
botulinum toxin

Clostridium
4.6 8.5
botulinum growth
 Clostridium
4.6 8.5
botulinum toxin

Clostridium
4.6 8.5
botulinum growth

Staphylococcus
4 6-7 10
aureus growth

Staphylococcus
4.5 7-8 9.6
aureus toxin

Enterohemorrhagic
4.4 6-7 9
Escherichia coli

Listeria
4.39 7 9.4
monocytogenes

Salmonella spp 4.21 7-7.5 9.5

Yersinia
4.2 7.2 9.6
enterocolitica

Table
Table 2.microbial
2. pH pH microbial growth
growth limits limits
for specific forofspecific
types bacteria types of bacteria

Uses for pH adjustment

Uses for pH adjustment
Because of microbial growth limits, lowering pH is an effective way to preserve foods and
prevent the growth
Because of microorganisms
of microbial andlowering
growth limits, can alsopH
be is
used as a critical
an effective waycontrol point in
to preserve
HAACP plans. Additionally, some manufacturers adjust pH to change flavor. This is often
foods and prevent the growth of microorganisms and can also be used as a
done through pickling or fermentation, which use microbial action, enzymatic reactions, or
critical
acids such ascontrol point
vinegar in HAACP
to induce plans. Additionally,
the production someMany
of lactic acid. manufacturers adjust are
chemical reactions
pH to change
pH dependent andflavor.
can beThis is often
prevented ordone through
controlled by pickling
adjustingorpH.
fermentation, which
use microbial action, enzymatic reactions, or acids such as vinegar to induce
the production of lactic acid. Many chemical reactions are pH dependent and
can be prevented or controlled by adjusting pH.
 Water activity and pH—more powerful together
The effects of water activity and pH can be combined through hurdle
Water activity
technology and
to control pH—more
microorganisms more powerful together
effectively. In the case of water
activity and pH, the combined effect of both hurdles is greater than the effects
The effects of water
each hurdle activity
alone. This and pH can
means you be
cancombined through
have effective hurdle technology
microbial control at to control
levels
microorganisms more effectively.
that would typically In the case
be considered of water
unsafe activity
for either pH and pH,
or for the combined
water activity effect
of both hurdles is greater than the effects each hurdle alone. This means you can have
alone. The currently valid 2013 food code contains pH and water activity
effective microbial control at levels that would typically be considered unsafe for either
interaction
pH or tables,alone.
for water activity shownThe
in Tables 3 and
currently 4,2013
valid that food
can be used
code to determine
contains pH and water
whether or not a food requires time and temperature control for safety
activity interaction tables, shown in Tables 3 and 4, that can be used to determine (TCS).
whether
or not a food requires time and temperature control for safety (TCS).

aw Values pH: 4.6 or less pH:> 4.6-5.6 pH:> 5.6

0.92 or less Non-TCS food* Non-TCS food Non-TCS food

>0.92-0.95 Non-TCS food Non-TCS food PA**

>0.95 Non-TCS food PA PA

Table 3. Interaction of pH and aw for control of spores in food heat-treated to destroy vegetative
Table 3. Interaction of pH and aw for control of spores in food heat-treated to destroy vegetative cells and subsequently packaged
cellsmeans
(*TCS and time/temperature
subsequentlycontrolpackaged (*TCS
for safety, means
**PA means time/temperature
product assessment required)control for safety, **PA means
product assessment required)

aw Values pH:< 4.2 pH: 4.2-4.6 pH:>4.6-5.0 pH:> 5.0

*Non-TCS Non-TCS Non-TCS

>0.88 Non-TCS food
food food food

Non-TCS Non-TCS Non-TCS

0.88-0.90 PA**
food food food

Non-TCS Non-TCS
>0.90-0.92 PA PA
food food
 cells and subsequently packaged (*TCS means time/temperature control for safety, **PA means
product assessment required)

aw Values pH:< 4.2 pH: 4.2-4.6 pH:>4.6-5.0 pH:> 5.0

*Non-TCS Non-TCS Non-TCS

>0.88 Non-TCS food
food food food

Non-TCS Non-TCS Non-TCS

0.88-0.90 PA**
food food food

Non-TCS Non-TCS
>0.90-0.92 PA PA
food food

Non-TCS
>0.92 PA PA PA
food

Table 4. Interaction of pH and aw for control of vegetative cells and spores in food not heat-treated
Table 4. Interaction of pH and aw for control of vegetative cells and spores in food not heat-treated or heat-treated but not packaged (*TCS
or heat-treated but not packaged (*TCS means time/temperature control for safety, **PA means
means time/temperature control for safety, **PA means product assessment required)
product assessment required)

Table 3 applies to foods that have been heat-treated to destroy microorganisms

and then packaged. Lowered water activity and pH are not kill steps. They do
not eliminate microorganisms.
Table 3 applies They
to foods that simply
have beenprevent growth of
heat-treated to microbes to toxic
destroy microorganisms
levels. Because the heat treatment destroys all microorganisms except spore
and then packaged. Lowered water activity and pH are not kill steps. They do
forming bacteria, they can be packaged at higher water activities and pH levels.
Undernotthese
eliminate microorganisms.
conditions, Theyofsimply
a water activity prevent
0.92 and growth
a pH of 4.6 or of microbes
greater is to toxic
levels. Because
considered safe. the heat treatment destroys all microorganisms except spore
forming bacteria, they can be packaged at higher water activities and pH levels.
Under these
Interactive Table 4conditions,
is used for aproducts
water activity ofnot
that are 0.92 andtreated,
heat a pH ofor4.6 or are
that greater is
heat-treated
considered andsafe.
unpackaged. Typically, these products require a water activity
of less than 0.88 or a pH level of less than 4.2 to be considered safe. However,
higher values can be acceptable when water activity and pH are combined.
Interactive Table 4 is used for products that are not heat treated, or that are
heat-treated and unpackaged. Typically, these products require a water activity
of less than 0.88 or a pH level of less than 4.2 to be considered safe. However,
higher values can be acceptable when water activity and pH are combined.

Table 5 shows the water activity and pH of some common foods. Strawberry
preserves have a very high water activity, but the pH is quite low. Because of
the citric acid present, the pH is low enough to prevent microbial growth even
though the water activity is high. Mustard also has a very low pH but a high
 of less than 0.88 or a pH level of less than 4.2 to be considered safe. However,
higher values can be acceptable when water activity and pH are combined.

Table 5 shows the water activity and pH of some common foods. Strawberry
preserves have a very high water activity, but the pH is quite low. Because of
Table 5 shows the water activity and pH of some common foods. Strawberry
the citric acid present, the pH is low enough to prevent microbial growth even
preserves have a very high water activity, but the pH is quite low. Because of
though
the citric the
acid water activity
present, islow
the pH is high. Mustard
enough also has
to prevent a very low
microbial pH but
growth evena high
water
though theactivity. Theseis
water activity products are safe
high. Mustard because
also of their
has a very low pH pH, not
but a because
high of
watertheir water
activity. activity.
These Mapleare
products syrup
safeisbecause
high in ofsugar,
theirsopH,it’s lower
not in water
because of activity,
theirbut
water
its activity. Maple
pH is fairly syrupIn
neutral. is this
highcase,
in sugar,
it’s so
theit’s lower
water in water
activity activity,
that would provide
but its
thepH is fairly
safety, notneutral.
the pH.In this case, it’s the water activity that would provide
the safety, not the pH.

Type Water Activity pH

Strawberry Preserves 0.9874 3.7

Yellow Mustard 0.9745 3.6

Hot Sauce 0.9642 3.6

Mediterranean Italian
0.9628 3.8
Dressing

Ranch Dressing 0.9561 3.9

Asian Toasted Sesame

0.9488 4.1
Dressing

Ketchup 0.9440 3.6

Mayonnaise 0.9393 4.1

French Dressing 0.9344 3.4

 Asian Toasted Sesame
0.9488 4.1
Dressing

Ketchup 0.9440 3.6

Mayonnaise 0.9393 4.1

French Dressing 0.9344 3.4

Barbecue Sauce 0.9333 3.8

Table 5. Water activity and pH of common foods

Table 5. Water activity and pH of common foods

Figure 1 shows that if water activity and pH are plotted together, there isn’t any
kindFigure
of direct relationship.
1 shows that if If acid is
water addedand
activity to apH
product to lower
are plotted its pH, itthere
together, will isn’t any
have some impact on water activity because acidic materials tend to be polar,
kind of direct relationship. If acid is added to a product to lower its pH, it will
and they preferentially interact with water. But essentially, lowering the pH will
have some
not directly impact
lower on water
the water activity because acidic materials tend to be polar,
activity.
and they preferentially interact with water. But essentially, lowering the pH will
not directly lower the water activity.

Figure 3. Water activity vs. pH: there is no direct relationship

Figure 3. Water activity vs. pH: there is no direct relationship

How to control water activity
The most common way to lower a product’s water activity is to dry or bake it.
(Although note that to do this properly, you must first understand the product’s
moisture sorption isotherm). Water activity can also be controlled by adding
humectants like salt, sugar, high fructose corn syrup, sorbitol, and
maltodextrin.

Common ways to control pH

The most common way to lower pH is through fermentation. Fermentation
relies on “good” bacteria to produce lactic acid, which then lowers the pH of
the product and prevents the growth of other types of organisms. Pickles,
sauerkraut, fermented sausages, and olives all use this strategy. pH can also be
controlled by adding acid (vinegar, lactic acid, citric acid) directly to the
product, or by adding naturally acidic ingredients like tomatoes in spaghetti
sauce.

Water activity and pH—fast and easy measurements

Water activity and pH are two measurements that are better together. And both
are easy to measure using readily available commercial water activity meters and pH
meters.

Learn more about water activity and pH

In this webinar, Dr. Brady Carter explains the theory and measurement of water
activity and pH. He also describes how these tools can effectively be used in
concert to achieve the highest level of product safety.
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