RAD4101

Characteristics and production of X-Rays

 Agenda
• Nature and creation of X-rays
• X-ray generation
• Types of equipment
Generation of X-rays

Radiation Safety 3
 Generation of X-Rays
requirements
• In order to generate short wavelength, high
frequency radiation, we need
1. A supply of free electrons
2. A great velocity/ acceleration of electrons
3. Target material for impact (tungsten)

Radiation Safety 4
Generation of X-Rays from X-ray tube

5
Three principle requirements for generating X-Rays
• Pass a current through wire  because of resistance, it
A source of heats up  electrons break away. THIS IS IN THE
electrons CATHODE…FROM THE FILAMENT

A means of • Electron(-) attracted to (+) anode (piece of metal). High

voltage to anode means high positive charge
acceleration • THEREFORE THE CATHODE- FILAMENT NEGATIVE CHARGE-
THE SOURCE OF ELECTRONS

A target of • Electron hits to target material it is absorbed or partially

absorbed and radiation is released. One interaction
interaction creating x-rays is Bremsstrahlung –continuous ray
formation. The other is Characteristic- collision and
ejecting orbiting electron of target material in x-ray tube
 Nature of X-rays

• X-rays are generated and originate through the interaction

of external electrons with atoms and elements of a material.
• REMEMBER PREVIOUSLY : eV – is the energy given to 1
electron by an accelerating potential of 1 volt and is the unit
of energy of an X-ray –similar to Energy-penetration of a
gamma ray expressed in eV.
• The industrial X-ray tubes produce two types of radiation:
• Bremsstrahlung (Continuous) X-rays
• Characteristic X-rays
 Bremsstrahlung M
R e d ir e c t e d e − w it h
le s s e n e r g y L
K
• When free electrons strike H ig h s p e e d
−
fre e e
target, braking action
takes place
• Electron is slowed down
by the electrical field of
nucleus
• The amount of energy is
released is dependant on
the proximity of nucleus
(The closer to the nucleus,
the more energy is lost,
short wave-length x-ray)
 Bremsstrahlung (continuous ) x-rays
• If electron is brought to rest
by single action, all of its
energy will appear as one
photon and shortest
wavelength is achieved
• Usually many decelerations
take place
• Also called white radiation
because similarity of white
light
• Spectrum of x-radiation
energies produced, therefore
Heterogenous, non-
monochromatic.
 Characteristic x-rays
• Occurs and is created based on
characteristic collision, which is less
frequent, because an Atom is mainly free
space (remember electron shells –orbits
in relation to nucleus size and spacing)
• What if an energetic electron collides
with an orbital electron? Electron is
displaced/removed from the atomic
structure of the target material. This gap
in the orbiting shell is immediately filled
by an electron from a high energy outer
shell dropping down. This action of the
outer shell electron quickly filling the
position, causes energy to be emitted.
The energy emitted is in the form of a
photon of radiation, and the atom then
returns to its stable state. Because the
energy levels of each shell for a
particular target material are known, the
energy of the X-ray given off is
characteristic of that material.
 Characteristic x-rays
Characteristic
X - r a y p h o to n

3 P h o to n c a rr ie s o ff th e
M e x c e s s e n e rg y b e tw e e n
−
L L & K e o rb it
K
2 L e − ju m p s to K s h e ll to
fill g a p

H ig h s p e e d
−
fr e e e
−
1 K s h e ll e k n o c k e d
o u t b y c o llis io n
 Generation of X-Rays:
Requirements for X-Ray production
• In order to generate short wavelength, high frequency x-
radiation, we need
1. A supply of free electrons
2. A great velocity/acceleration of electrons
3. Target material for impact and interaction with electrons.

• Note: approximately 99% of energy created is heat at 100

kilovoltage peak (kVp), although the percentage of heat
produced decreases as the voltage on the tube increases. The
copper anode in an x-ray tube is an excellent heat conducting
material, and if the actual focal spot size –target area is large
this will also help to spread the heat load.
REVIEW: Three principle requirements for
generating X-Rays
A source of electrons • Pass a current through wire  because of
resistance, it heats up  electron breaks
away

• Electron(-) attracted to (+) anode (piece

A means of acceleration of metal). High voltage to anode means
high positive charge

A target of interaction • Electron hits to target material it is

absorbed or partially absorbed and
radiation is released
REQUIRED TUBE OUTPUT VS STEEL THICKNESS PENETRATION

Potential kVp Maximum Thickness of Steel in

inches (mm)

80 0.l5 (3.8)
100 0.30 (7.6)

150 0.75 (19)

2oo 1.0 (25)

250 2.0 (51)

400 3.0 (76)

1000 5.0 (127)

2000 10.0 (250)

15000 to 24000 20.0 (500)

 To generate X-Rays we also need

1. X-ray tube
2. High voltage power • Filament –cathode end uses
supply small voltage supply (mV)
while anode 5-400 kV or
more by using transformer
• Current control (mA) for
filament, Voltage control
(kV) –for electric potential
3. A control unit across anode/cathode,
Time control (duration of
exposure.
 The Control Unit
• Current Control- adjusting the current being
applied to the filament results in variations in
the radiation intensity (# of free electrons)
• Voltage Control- increasing the voltage
between anode and cathode increases the
speed of electrons reacting with target more
energy shorter λ more penetrating
• Timer- Control of the duration of exposure
What happens when we turn off power?
Envelope
• Usually from glass or metal ceramic
• Glass envelopes are susceptible to thermal and
mechanical shock

X-ray Tube Window:

• Due to its unusual combination of properties, beryllium is a high-performance
material featured in commercial X-ray applications. Unlike most metals, beryllium
has a low mass absorption coefficient, which means that it is highly transmissive,
or transparent, to X-rays.
• Most metals are high absorbers of X-rays and other forms of radiation, which
makes making beryllium an ideal choice for in use as X-ray window material. A
beryllium X-ray window is an opaque piece of metal, often in the form of relatively
thin-gauge beryllium sheet or foil. It acts as a barrier between the vacuum or inert
gas environment inside an X-ray source tube or detector and atmospheric
conditions outside the device, while at the same time allowing X-rays to pass
through it.
 Cathode (- charge)
• Made of three parts. Main body, filament and focusing cup. The Main body is generally made
of nickel or iron.

• Thoriated tungsten filament. Tungsten is used because of its high melting point, does not
vaporize easily (gases would cause electrical imbalances in the tube and cause failure), helps
with emission-tungsten undergoes thermionic emission better than most other metals, and it
has a high atomic number-number of electrons). Thorium lowers the emission temperature.
• AC transformer of the X-ray unit heats the filament to incandescence.
• Electrons are released because of thermionic emission whereby electrons are freed from their
orbit when current is passed through the filament “boiling them off” due to the energy to form
an electron cloud around the filament.
• Industrial units have up to 20 mA current supply. Some units could have multiple filaments
without/with fixed mA-s

• The filament is inside the focusing cup, that helps for efficiency, focuses the cloud of electrons
into a localized area –creating space charge. This is all in the cathode which has a negative
charge.
 Anode (+ charge)
• In Industrial units, the target is made of tungsten and is in the anode. This is the Positive side
of the x-ray tube with high electrical charge applied. Increasing the KV increases the
potential difference between the cathode and anode. The higher the difference (KV) the
higher the speed of the electrons emitted travelling through the vacuum.
• For research units copper, iron, cobalt is used too for the anode. The anode is usually made
of cooper because it is a good electrical and thermal conductor. Note: 98% of impacting
electron’s kinetic energy is converted to heat. Also needed for support of the target.

TARGET:
The area impacted by electrons, embedded in the center of the anode. The target is Bounded
with copper in the anode for transmittal of the heat generated away.
Tungsten is used for the target because of high atomic number, good thermal conductor and high
melting point.
• The orientation of the target influences the size and shape of focal spot size (0-30 degrees –
normally at an angle of 20 deg.)
• X-rays generated from target produce Heel Effect---less intensity from outer edge/or cone of
x-rays beyond target.
• NOTE: want largest actual focal spot (area for electrons to impact )and smallest effective focal
size (for sharpness image).
 X-RAY TUBE

Negative (-)
Vacuum
Anode:
Positive (+)

Copper

Window
 TARGET and Focal spot size
• The smaller the focal spot, the smaller geometric un-sharpness, the better defined image
•  
you have
• Actual focal spot (where the actual electrons impact) versus effective focal spot or
Projected focal spot (the useful x-ray beam to be as small as possible to achieve maximum
image sharpness)
• Importance of the angle is known as line focus principle.
• 2.5 mm X 2.5 mm focal spot is considered f=3.5 mm focal spot size.
(focal spot point to point=

Line focus principle

FOCAL spot angle –line focus principle &
X-ray Beam generation
The focal spot size
when viewed from the
radiographic film is
smaller than its actual
size. The useful beam
will vary in intensity.
TARGET (anode) heel effect and Focal spot size

• The conversion of the electron beam into x-rays doesn’t simply occur
at the surface of the target material but deep within it. Because x-
rays are produced deep in the target material they must traverse
back out of it before they can proceed to the target field. More
target material needs to be traversed at emission angles that are
perpendicular to the electron beam (closer to the anode) than at
those more parallel to it (closer to the cathode). This increase in
material leads to more resorption of the x-rays by the target material
resulting in fewer x-rays reaching the field at angles perpendicular to
the electron beam. It also means that the x-rays emitted to angles
closer to the incident beam travel through less target material and
fewer are resorbed.
 X-ray tube Hood
The Hood:
– Provides Additional shielding
– Electrically shields the envelope from charge build-up due to
electrons scattered from the tungsten target or released by
photoelectric effect
– Beryllium window. Helps eliminate xrays outside of cone of
radiation. Keeps air out of tube and allows x-rays out.
 Importance of Cooling and Duty cycle
• 97-99% electrons hitting the target produce heat
• Cooling systems with oil, gas, water, air used to avoid the surface of the
target to erode – overheat
• The efficiency of cooling governs the duty cycle
• Rotating targets can be used to reduce heat and stress in tube and
target.
• DUTY CYCLE is a percentage of actual usage vs rest time. Ie/80%duty
cycle: means machine requires 20 % rest vs 80 % exposure. 4 minutes
exposure plus one minute rest.
– What does 50% of duty cycle means?
– What does 75% of duty cycle means?
– If I run X-ray machine one hour, how long do I have to wait if I have 25% of
duty cycle?
 Warm up and Duty cycle of an X-ray Tube
• The operating kV should be used within 90% of tube`s maximum kV
rating.
• Too low kV is not desirable either.
• The Duty cycle prevents overheating the tube: Time off after Time on
to prolong the life of X-ray tube. 100% duty means no rest required.
50% means equal time of rest to time of use (generating x-rays).
• Gradual warm up cycle must be followed:
– Prevents filament weakening & to prevent sudden heat burden on the
anode, target and filament. To prevent damage.
– Older tubes have tungsten on glass envelope and without warm up it could
cause arcing and cracking of the tube
 For X-Rays
• If one electron were accelerated by a potential of 100
thousand volts (100 KV), the electron would have an energy of
100 KeV. If all of its energy is converted to electromagnetic
radiation, the result would be 100 KeV X-Ray
• If 150 KV of voltage is applied to an X-Ray tube, the resulting
X-ray radiation consists X-Rays with maximum energy of 150
KeV plus many X-rays with lower energies.
Non-monochromatic (heterogenous) Versus Monochromatic radiation
** Remember Photons Of Electromagnetic radiation are unique because they have some
properties of particles and act as waves. Thus, instead of a physical measurement of
wavelength in Angstrom units (1A = 10” centimeters or .1nm) photon energy can be
measured in electron volts (eV). One electron volt (eV) is considered as the energy imparted
to one electron by an accelerating potential of 1 volt. X-ray energy levels are usually
expressed in the thousand electron voltage (keV) range.
 X-ray intensity –amount of radiation and
energy
• The total amount of radiation emitted by an X-
ray tube is dependent upon:
– The tube current (ma)
– The kilovoltage (KV)
– The time the tube is energized.
 X-ray Intensity

• An X-ray beam can best be described with regard to the number of X-rays
being produced, which is referred to as the intensity. The unit used to
measure the intensity of X-rays(radiation) is the Roentgen/Sv. The number of
X-rays produced will vary from one X-Ray tube to another even If they are
from the same manufacturer. Therefore, it is more common to express the
intensity with regard to the milliampere (mA) control. This control, when
raised, will Increase the number of X-rays by increasing the temperature of
the filament and thus the number of electrons freed at the cathode. This
increase is directly proportional to the milliampere (mA) control. Increasing
filament current from 2mA to 4mA will DOUBLE the number of X-rays, and
decreasing from 6mA to 3mA will halve the number of X-rays.

• The quantity of radiation an object is subjected to is based upon intensity

and time - called “Exposure”
• i.e. Exposure = mA x minutes (mAm) or mA x seconds (mAs)
radiographically for x-ray.
 X-ray Quality- Penetrating power

• The other term used In describing an X-ray beam refers to the quality (penetrating
power). For a greater thickness of material to be penetrated the wavelength of the X-
rays will have to be shorter. This Is achieved by increasing the kilovoltage control,
which provides a greater attraction for the free electrons. This attraction will increase
the speed of the electrons so they in turn release more energy when interacting with
the atoms of the target. This Increase In energy means a SHORTER WAVELENGTH,
which means GREATER PENETRATION and is referred to as HARD X-radiation. By
increasing the kV, not only are shorter wavelength X-rays the result, but the intensity is
also increased.
• The increase In intensity is exponential to the increase in the tube voltage. With no
change in the tube current (mA), the radiation intensity increases as approximately as
the square of the voltage change. By Increasing from 65 kVp to 95 kVp (a change of
approximately 1.45 times) the radiation intensity would be increased by a factor of 2
(i.e. 1.452, thus halving the exposure time). The peak value of the voltage applied to
an X-ray tube will vary depending on the waveform of the high voltage source. The
speed of the electrons striking the anode is at its highest as the tube voltage reaches
its maximum/peak. Therefore, maximum tube voltage (kVp) not only controls the
speed of the free electrons, but also produces the shortest wavelength.
 Int
ens
ity

1. Current applied: 2. Voltage applied:

The effect of mA at a constant kV on the X-ray
energy spectrum. Curves illustrating the effect of
a change in milliamperage on the intensity of an
X-ray beam.
• When all other conditions are held constant a
change in Ma causes a change in intensity of
radiation emitted. Intensity being approx.
proportional to Ma. Double Ma double the # of
electrons.
• Each wavelength is twice as intense in one beam as
the other but there are no wavelengths in one
beam that are not in the other
Curves below illustrating the effect of a
change in kilovoltage on the composition
and intensity of an X-ray beam. The
spectrum for the 100 kV beam is seen in
the figure to consist of a broad
Bremsstrahlung spectrum with
superimposed K-characteristic lines, The 60
kV spectrum is seen in comparison to be of
much lower intensity and lower energy-
including characteristic rays

High Milliamperage
ex/ 8mA
Intensity

Low Milliamperage.
Ex/ 4 mA

Wavelength
 Quantity versus Quality
(of the radiation beam not radiograph)

• Gamma ray energies (penetrating power) are

determined by the type of isotope, X-Ray energy by
voltage applied to tube in kV
– To increase the quality, higher kV

• Gamma ray intensity (number of rays) is determined

by the activity (Ci /Bq) of the isotope, X-ray intensity
by amperage applied to filament
– To increase the quantity, more electrons, more mA
 Activity , Intensity Energy eV
(the amount of photons) (penetrating ability, wavelength)

Gamma Rays Size of the source. More Ci and Predetermined by the isotope
Bq means more intensity used

X-Rays Number of free electrons Voltage applied to the anode in

available, controlled by mA KV. More KV means higher
setting acceleration of electrons, higher
resultant energy of x-ray
produced.