Chapter 2 : Metabolism

By : 12 – Mia - 03
Enzymes
• Most enzymes are
Proteins (tertiary and
quaternary structures)

• Act as Catalyst to
accelerates a reaction

• Not permanently changed

in the process
Enzymes
• Are specific for what
they will catalyze

• Are Reusable

• End in – ase
Ex : Sucrase,Lactase,-
Maltase
 How Enzymes Work ?
• Enzymes work by
weakening bonds which
lowers activation energy

Activation energy , in chemistry, the

minimum amount of energy that is
required to activate atoms or molecules
to a condition in which they can
undergo chemical transformation or
physical transport.
 Enzymes
Without Enzyme
With Enzyme

Free Free energy of activation

Energy
Reactants

Products

Progress of the reaction

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Enzyme-Substrate Complex
The substance (reactant) an
enzyme acts on is the
substrate

Substrate Joins Enzyme

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Active Site
A restricted region
of an enzyme Active
molecule which Site
binds to the
substrate.
Substrate
Enzyme

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How enzymes works ?
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

•Enzyme Concentration
•Substrate Concentration
•Inhibitors
•Temperature
•pH

Substrate
Enzyme
Two examples of Enzyme
Inhibitors
Competitive inhibitors : are chemicals
that resemble an enzyme’s normal
substrate and compete with it for the
active site.

Substrate
Enzyme
Competitive inhibitor

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 Inhibitors
Noncompetitive inhibitors :Inhibitors that do
not enter thea ctive site, but bind to another
part of the enzyme causing the enzyme to
change its shape, which in turn alters the
active site.

Substrate Noncompetitive
Enzyme Inhibitor
Active
Site

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Aerobic Respiration
• The process

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6CO2 + 36 ATP

Glukosa oksigen air karbondioksida energi
Aerobic Respiration
• In this respiration, food ingredients such as carbohydrates, fats or
proteins are oxidized completely to carbon dioxide and water. In the
above reaction, the substrate that is fully oxidized is glucose. Oxygen
is needed as the last electron acceptor in the mitochondrial electron
transport chain.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is released out of the cell as waste. In humans,
CO2 is dissolved in the blood, then discharged through breathing from
the lungs. The water molecule is also a waste of respiration and is
discharged through the blood plasma to the lungs, then released
through breath.
Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration can be divided into three stages, namely: glycolysis,
krebs cycle, and electron transport. To understand these stages, look at
the following description.

1 . Glycolysis
the event of converting glucose molecules (6 atoms C) into two simpler
molecules, namely pyruvic acid (3 atoms C). Glycolysis occurs in the cell
cytoplasm. The process consists of ten steps, as in the following Figure.
Glycolysis
The glycolysis event shows changes in glucose, then decreases the
complexity of the molecule and ends as a pyruvic acid molecule.

Important products of glycolysis are:

1) 2 molecules of pyruvic acid
2) 2 NADH molecules as high-energy electron sources
3) 2 ATP molecules from 1 glucose molecule

Actually, from 1 molecule of glucose 4 molecules of ATP are produced, but 2

molecules are used for some chemical reactions. Of the ten steps to break
down glucose, two of them are endergonic, and use 2 ATP molecules.
Krebs cycle
b. The krebs cycle is the second stage of aerobic respiration. The name
of this cycle comes from the name of the person who discovered the
second stage of aerobic respiration reaction, namely Hans Krebs.

This cycle is also called the citric acid cycle.

HANS KREB
Krebs Cycle
The krebs cycle begins with the presence of 2 molecules of pyruvic acid which are
formed in the glycolysis that leaves the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. Thus, the
krebs cycle occurs inside mitochondria. The stages of the krebs cycle are as
follows:

a) Pyruvic acid from the glycolysis process, then goes to the krebs cycle after
reacting with NAD + (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and co-enzyme A or Co-
A, forming acetyl Co-A. In this event, CO2 and NADH were released. Changes in
the content of C from 3C (pyruvic acid) to 2C (acetyl co-A).

b) The reaction between acetyl Co-A (2C) with oxalo acetic acid (4C) and citric acid
(6C) is formed. In this event, Ko-A was released again.
Krebs cycle
c) Citric acid (6C) with NAD + forms alpha ketoglutaric acid (5C) by
freeing CO2.
d) The following events are rather complex, namely the formation of
succinic acid (4C) after reacting with NAD + by liberating NADH, CO2
and producing ATP after reacting with ADP and inorganic phosphoric
acid.
e) Succinic acid is formed, then reacts with FAD (Flarine Adenine
Dinucleotide) and forms malic acid (4C) by freeing FADH2.
Krebs Cycle
f) Malic acid (4C) then reacts with NAD + and forms oxaloacetic acid
(4C) by liberating NADH, because oxalo acetate acid will return with
acetyl co-A as in step 2 above.

It can be concluded that the krebs cycle is the second stage in aerobic
respiration which has three functions, namely producing NADH,
FADH2, ATP and reshaping oxaloacetate. This oxaloacetate works for
the next krebs cycle. In the krebs cycle, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP
are produced.
Electron transport
c. Electron transport occurs in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria, and ends after the electron and H + react with oxygen
which functions as the last acceptor, forming H2O. The ATP produced at
this stage is 32 ATP.

The reaction is complex, but what plays an important role is NADH,

FAD, and special molecules, such as Flavo protein, Q-enzyme, and some
cytochromes. There are several cytochrome known, namely
cytochrome C1, C, A, B, and A3.
.
Electron transport
Energy electrons first come from NADH, then transferred to FMN (Flavine Mono
Nucleotide), then to Q, cytochrome C1, C, A, B, and A3, then bind to H taken from
the surrounding environment. Until the last reaction occurs that forms H2O.

Simply put, the electron transport reaction is written:

24- + 24 H + + 6 O2 → 12 H2O

So, the final result of this process is the formation of 32 ATP and H2O as a
byproduct of respiration. The byproducts of respiration are eventually discharged
outside the body, in plants through stomata and through the lungs in high-level
animal respiration.