Analytical & Digital

Photogrammetry
 BRANCHES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Analogue Photogrammetry -

optical or mechanical
instruments were used to
reconstruct three-dimensional
geometry from two overlapping
photographs. The main product
during this phase was
topographic maps.
 Analytical Photogrammetry
The computer replaces expensive
optical and mechanical components.

The resulting devices were

analog/digital hybrids.

Outputs of analytical photogrammetry

can be topographic maps, but can also
be digital products, such as digital
maps and DEMs
 Digital Photogrammetry

Digital photogrammetry is applied

to digital images that are stored
and processed on a computer.

Digital photogrammetry is
sometimes called softcopy
photogrammetry.

The output products are in digital

form, such as digital maps, DEMs,
and digital orthophotos saved on
computer storage media.
 Introduction
1. Analytical photogrammetry is a term used to
describe the rigorous mathematical calculation of
coordinates of points in object space based upon
camera parameters, measured photo coordinates
and ground control.

2. Analytical photogrammetry generally involves the

solution of large, complex systems of redundant
equations by the method of least squares.
3. Analytical photogrammetry forms the basis of
many modem hardware and software systems,
including: stereoplotters (analytical and
softcopy), digital terrain model generation,
orthophoto production, digital photo
rectification, and aerotriangulation.
 Collinearity Condition
Perhaps the most
fundamental and useful
relationship in analytical
photogrammetry is the
collinearity condition.
Collinearity is the
condition that the
exposure station, any
object point, and its photo
image all lie along a
straight line in three-
dimensional space.
 Collinearity Equation
xa Xa- Xo
ya = R Ya – Yo
-f Za - Zo
Where R is the Rotation matrix of combined rotation of kappa,
omega and phi

m11 ( X A  X L )  m12 (YA  YL )  m13 ( Z A  Z L )

xa  x0  f
m31 ( X A  X L )  m32 (YA  YL )  m33 ( Z A  Z L )
m21 ( X A  X L )  m22 (YA  YL )  m23 ( Z A  Z L )
y a  y0  f
m31 ( X A  X L )  m32 (YA  YL )  m33 ( Z A  Z L )

b11d  b12 d  b13d  b14 dX L  b15dYL  b16 dZ L  b14 dX A  b15dYA  b16 Z A  J  vx a

b21d  b22 d  b23d  b24 dX L  b25 dYL  b26 dZ L  b24 dX A  b25 dYA  b26 Z A  J  v ya
 Because higher order terms are ignored in linearization
by Taylor's theorem, the linearized forms of the
equations are approximations.

They must therefore be solved iteratively, until

the magnitudes of corrections to initial
approximations become negligible.
 Coplanarity Condition
Coplanarity is the condition that the two exposure
stations of a stereopair, any object point, and its
corresponding
image points on
the two photos
all lie in a
common plane.

points L1, L2, a1, a2

and A all lie in the
same plane.
 Image /Photo Coordinate
Measurements
1. A fundamental type of measurement used in
analytical photogrammetry is an x and y photo
coordinate pair.
2. Internal reference system in the Photographic camera.
3. Since mathematical relationships in analytical
photogrammetry are based on assumptions such as
"light rays travel in straight lines" and "the focal plane
of a frame camera is flat," various coordinate
refinements may be required to correct measured
photo coordinates for distortion effects
 Model Coordinate System
• Spatial coordinates of points images in a
stereoscopic model .
• Relates position with respect to camera base
or instrument axis.
 Control Points
Object space coordinates of ground control points,
which may be either image-identifiable features, are
generally determined via some type of field survey
technique such as GPS.

It is important that the object space coordinates be

based on a three-dimensional Cartesian system
which has straight, mutually perpendicular axes.
 Stereomodel
1. Aerial photographs for most applications are
taken so that adjacent photos overlap by more
than 55 percent. Two adjacent photographs that
overlap in this manner form a stereopair; and
object points that appear in the overlap area
constitute a stereomodel.

2. The mathematical calculation of three-

dimensional ground coordinates of points in the
stereomodel by analytical photogrammetric
techniques forms an analytical stereomodel.
The process of forming an analytical stereomodel
involves three primary steps:

1. Interior orientation,
2. Relative orientation, and
3. Absolute orientation.

After these three steps are achieved, points in the

analytical stereomodel will have object coordinates
in the ground coordinate system.
 Interior Orientation
Interior orientation for analytical photogrammetry is
the step which mathematically recreates the geometry
that existed in the camera when a particular
photograph was exposed.

This requires camera calibration information as well

as quantification of the effects of atmospheric
refraction. These procedures, commonly called photo
coordinate refinement.
The process are
1. With coordinates of fiducials and image points
which have been measured by a comparator or
related device.
2. A 2D coordinate transformation is used to relate the
comparator coordinates to the fiducial coordinate
system as well as to correct for film distortion.
3. The lens distortion and principal-point information
from camera calibration are then used to refine the
coordinates so that they are correctly related to the
principal point and free from lens distortion.
4. Atmospheric refraction corrections can be applied
to the photo coordinates to complete the refinement,
 Relative Orientation

Analytical relative orientation is the process of

determining the relative angular attitude and
positional displacement between the photographs that
existed when the photos were taken.
This involves defining certain elements of exterior
orientation and calculating the remaining ones. The
resulting exterior orientation parameters will not be
the actual values that existed when the photographs
were exposed; however, they will be correct in a
"relative sense" between the photos.
1. In analytical relative orientation, it is
common practice to fix the exterior
orientation elements , , , XL, and YL
of the left photo of the stereopair to zero
values.
2. Also for convenience, ZL of the left photo
(ZL1) is set equal f of, and XL of the right
photo (XL2) is set equal to the photo base
b.
3. This leaves five elements of the right
photo that must be determined.
Figure illustrates a stereomodel formed by analytical
relative orientation.
 Analytical Absolute Orientation
1. For a stereomodel computed from one stereopair,
analytical absolute orientation can be performed using a
3D conformal coordinate transformation.
2. This requires at least two horizontal and three vertical
control points, but additional control points provide
redundancy, which enables a least squares solution.
3. In the process of absolute orientation, stereomodel
coordinates of control points are related to their 3D
coordinates in a ground based system. It is important for
the ground system to be a true Cartesian coordinate
system, such as local vertical, since the 3D conformal
coordinate transformation is based on straight,
orthogonal axes.
 Analytical Self-Calibration
Analytical self-calibration is a computational process
wherein camera calibration parameters are included in
the photogrammetric solution, generally in a combined
interior-relative-absolute orientation.

The process uses collinearity equations that have been

augmented with additional terms to account for
adjustment of the calibrated focal length, principal-point
offsets, and symmetric radial and decentering lens
distortion. In addition, the equations might include
corrections for atmospheric refraction as presented.
 Epipolar Geometry
coplanarity is the condition in which the left and right
camera stations, an object point, and the left and right
images of the object point lie in a common plane.

Epipolar plane: any plane containing the two

exposure stations and an object point, in this instance
plane L1AL2
Epopolar line: the intersection of the epipolar plane
with with the left and right photoplanes.
Conjugate Points:
Characteristics
Given the left photo
location of image a1,
its corresponding
point a2 on the right
photo is known to lie
along the right
epipolar line.
 Space Resection By Collinearity
• Space resection is a method of determining the six
elements of exterior orientation (, , , XL, YL, and
 

ZL) of a photograph.
• This method requires a minimum of three control
points, with known XYZ object space coordinates,
to be imaged in the photograph.

If the ground control coordinates are assumed to be

 
known and fixed, then the linearized forms of the space
resection collinearity equations for a point A are :
b11d  b12d  b13d  b14 dX L  b15dYL  b16 dZ L  J  vxa
b21d  b22 d  b23d  b24 dX L  b25 dYL  b26 dZ L  J  v ya
Since the collinearity equations are nonlinear, and
have been linearized using Taylor's theorem, initial
approximations are required for the unknown
orientation parameters.

For the typical case of near-vertical photography,

zero values can be used as initial approximations for
 and . The value of ZL
Space Intersection By Collinearity
If space resection is used to determine the elements of
exterior orientation for both photos of a stereopair, then
object point coordinates for points that lie in the stereo
overlap area can be calculated.
The procedure is known as space intersection, so
called because corresponding rays to the same object
point from the two photos must intersect at the point
b14 dX A  b15 dYA  b16 dZ A  J  vxa
b24 dX A  b25dYA  b26 dZ A  J  v ya
Two equations of this form can be written for point al
of the left photo, and two more for point a2 of the right
photo;

hence four
equations result,
and the three
unknowns dXA,
dYA and dZA
can be
computed in a
least squares
solution.
 DEM GENERATION
SEARCH EXAMPLE
Left Image Right Image
Search Window
Pull-In Region
Reference Window
Search Direction

Reference Image Search Image

 Stereo Vision
fB
Z ( x, y ) 
d ( x, y )
depth
Z(x, y) is depth at pixel (x, y)
d(x, y) is disparity
baseline

Left Right

Matching correlation
windows across scan lines

31
 Correspondence Using
Correlation
Left Right

scanline

32
 Epipolar Geometry
• The epipolar geometry is the fundamental
constraint in stereo.
• Rectification aligns epipolar lines with scanlines

Epipolar plane

Epipolar line for p’ Epipolar line for p

 Digital Photogrammetry
Analytical photogrammetry applied on digital
images, also including some applications from the
neighbouring fields of Computer Vision and Digital
Image Processing.

or
Softcopy Photogrammetry
”Softcopy” refers to the display of a digital image, as
opposed to a ”hardcopy” (a physical, tangible photo).

 
Satellite Photogrammetry is the Science, Technology and Art of
making precise measurements on images produced by spaceborne
imaging sensors to derive reliable topographic information of the
viewed planetary surface.
 Hardware
- Dual 21" monitors
- Dual Pentium Processors
- Win 2000
- 3Dlabs Wildcat graphics card
- Emitter
- CrystalEyes
- 3D Mouse

Z/I Stereo Softcopy Kit

- Emitter
- CrystalEyes
- Graphics card
- 3D mouse (Immersions 3D softmouse)
 System Components

• Central Processing Unit (CPU).

• Operative System (OS). 32-bit real-time processing.
• Main Memory (RAM).
• Storage. Hard disc of several Gb.
• Graphics Display System. Graphics card and monitor(s).
• 3D Viewing System. Stereo viewing in colour if possible.
• 3D Measuring Device.
• User Interface. GUI, keyboard, mouse, trackball, handwheels.
 3D Viewing

The human brain requires

separation of stereoimages in
order to get a 3D view.

Separation method Practical implementation

Spatial 2 monitors + stereoscope
1 monitor (split screen) + stereoscope
2 monitors + passive polarisation
Spectral Anaglyphic
Passive polarisation
Sequential Alternated synchronised display,
active polarisation or LCD
 3D Viewing – pros and cons

Implementation Advantage / Disadvantage

2 monitors - Bulky
- Only one observer
Split screen - 50% Field of Vision
+ stereoscope - Only one observer
Anaglyphic - No colour images + Several observers
- Bad transmission + Very cheap
Passive - 50% resolution + Several
observerspolarisation - High initial cost + Cheap
glasses
LCD and Active - 50% resolution + Several observers
polarisation - Expensive glasses
- Flickering
Polarisation screen + glasses
 Split-screen + stereoscope

©GeoSystem

Delta DPS from GeoSystem (Ukraine)

(Also available with 3D glasses)

Note the hand- and footwheels!

 Monitor requirements

• 24 bit monitor for viewing colour images.

• 120 Hz for good refresh rate with
sequential stereo viewing.
• 1-2 million pixels required (minimum). 1280x1024.
The resolution may determine the accuracy.
• One (large) or two monitors. 21”+

• More than two images can be shown

simultaneously.
• Overlays of graphic (map data) in 2D or 3D.
 3D measuring devices

• Mouse

• Mouse + trackball

• Hand- and footwheels

(from analytical instruments)

• “Rat” (device from analytical instrument)

 DVP system we have
Stereo glasses

Shutter Screen

Synchronizer