METALLURGY IN DENTAL

MATERIALS
 Definition
 Classification
 Physical properties
 Chemical properties
 Metallic bonds
 Solidification
 Nucleus formation
 Crystallization
 Dendrite formation
 Grain size
 Equilibrium phases
 Prosthodontic considerations
 Summary
 Materials used for the reconstruction of decayed,
damaged or missing teeth
1. Ceramics
2. Polymers
3. Composites
4. Metals
Definition
Any strong and relatively ductile substance that
provides electropositive ions to a corrosive
environment and that can be polished to a
high luster. (G.P.T-9).
5
 Characteristic Properties Of Metals

Metals are usually-

• Hard
• Lustrous
• Dense
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Opaque
• Malleable and ductile
• They give electro positive ions in solution

6
Definition:
Alloys are materials made up of more than
one chemical element, at least one of which
must be a metal.
 Metallic Bond

 Primary Bonds
1. Ionic Bonds
2. Covalent Bonds
3. Metallic Bonds

 Secondary Bonds
Vander vaal’s bonds

8
Fabrication (Shaping) Methods Of Metals

Casting – is the best and popular method.

Working on the metal – either in cold or hot

condition (i.e, with or without heating). This involves
pressing, rolling or forging. The metal subjected to
the above process are called as wrought metals.

9
Extrusion - The process in which the metal is forced
through a die to form a metal tubing.

Powder Metallurgy – involves pressing powdered

metals into a mould of desired shape and heating it
to a high temperature to cause a solid mass.

10
 Solidification Of Pure Metal

Pure metal has a melting point-known as Fusion

Temperature, and has specific heat.
To melt a crystalline substance (metal) some what
more heat energy is required to convert it from solid
to liquid.
This extra heat is stored away within the atoms in
the form of latent heat of fusion.

11
Solidification Of Pure Metal (Contd.)
Mechanism
When the solid metal changes into liquid, its
crystalline pattern disappears, and the atoms are
randomly distributed in the mass of liquid and they
have more energy and are therefore move about
freely.
In the reverse process of changing into solid,
temperature of the melt goes gradually (cooling);
atoms make an attempt to reform the crystalline
arrangement.

12
 Mechanism of Crystallization

A pure metal may crystallize in a tree-branch pattern

to form what is called a NUCLEUS
The initial nuclei are small in size and few in number
known as EMBRYO, which do not stabilize in the
melt and soon disappear.
As the temperature of the metal gradually goes
down, a stable NUCLEUS is formed.

13
Mechanism of Crystallization (contd.)

Such nucleus formations are called DENDRITES.

The metal is therefore made of thousands of tiny
crystals, such a metal is called polycrystalline and
each crystal in the structure is called a GRAIN.

14
15
 Control Of Grain Size

More nuclei in a given area results in smaller grain

size.
Rate of Crystallization – is faster than the rate of
nuclei formation there will be larger grains.
Rate of Cooling –
Rapid cooling – Smaller grain size
Slow cooling – Larger grain size

16
 Crystal Space Lattice

The formed crystals in a metal are arranged in a

orderly pattern – layer by layer in regular stacks.
The crystals of a metal is in the form of a space
lattice.
The type of space lattice varies from metal to metal.

17
Crystal Space Lattice

18
 Lattice Imperfections Or Defects
19

During crystal growth they do not meet in regular

fashion lattice by lattice plane, they grow randomly
and meet irregularly resulting in imperfection or
defects.
These defects may be POINT DEFECTS or LINE
DEFECTS.
The line defects are also DISLOCATIONS.
 Edge Dislocation Slip Plane
20

The line defects in a lattice can be made to slip by

stress until finally the dislocation reaches the edge of
the metal and disappears. This is known as EDGE
DISLOCATION.
The plane along which the dislocation moves is the
slip lane.
Edge Dislocation Slip Plane
21
Edge Dislocation Slip Plane
22
 23

The strength and ductility of the metal depends to a

large extent on the ease with which dislocations are
able to move
If the dislocation impedes each other’s movement
and metal becomes harder such hardening is called
WORK HARDENING or STRAIN HARDENING.
If this is done at room temperature without heating
the metal it is called COLD WORKING and the
finished metal is called WROUGHT METAL.
Cooling Pattern of Liquid Metal During Solidification
24

Liquidus temperature – the temperature at which a

metal in liquid state undergoes first solidification.
Solidus temperature – the temperature at which the
last liquid of the metal solidifies.
 Working On Metals
25

Deformation of Metal – Cold Work

– Hot Work
– Elastic –
Permanent
 Annealing
 Fracture of the metal
 Working On Metals (Contd.)
26

Cold Work – when a metal is worked upon without

heating.
Hot Work – when a metal is worked upon without
heating.
Working on metal involves rolling, bending, pulling,
pressing, hammering, etc in order to give a certain
shape to a metal.
At the end of such a work the metal becomes
wrought.
 Working On Metals (Contd.)
27

Cold working results in

 Increased surface hardness, strength and proportional limit.
 Decreased ductility, resistance to corrosion and distorted
grain structure.
 Working On Metals (Contd.)
28

 Annealing – heat treatment of metal or glass to

eliminate the undesirable effects of strain
hardening and return the metal to its original
condition without changing its shape.
 It involves three steps,

1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
 Recovery
29

During recovery, cold work properties begin to

disappear.
 Recrystallization
30

The temperature at which the Old grains disappear

completely and are replaced by new set of strain free
grains is called recrystallization .
The metal gets back its original soft and ductile
nature.
 Grain Growth
31

Grain growth stops when a coarse grain structure is

reached.
Annealing
32
 Classification Of Alloys (Contd.)
33

On the basis of miscibility (solubility) of atoms of the

ingredient metals after solidification i.e, in the solid
state. The four possibilities are,
 Solid solution
 Eutectic mixture
 Inter metallic compound
 Peritectic alloy
 Solid Solution
34

Complete solubility.
These are the alloys in which the ingredient metals
are soluble in each other both in liquid state as well
as in solid state, e.g. gold and copper alloy.
These are the alloys in which alloying atoms are
distributed throughout the crystals without causing
a fundamental change in the shape of the parent
space lattice, and also the microscopic structure is
homogeneous and resembles that of pure metal.
Solid Solution
35
 Solid Solution (Contd.)
36

Some examples of Solid solutions are,

 Au-Ag alloy
 Au-Cu alloy
 Au-Pt alloy
 Au-Pa alloy
 Ag-Pd alloy, etc.
Solid solution alloys consist of single phase only
and are chemically homogenous.
 Solid Solution (Contd.)
37

 The solid-solution alloys may be;

1. SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION ALLOY -

the atoms of one metal replaces the atoms of parent
metal in the space lattice and occupies that place.
Such a substitutional solid solution alloy can have
TWO TYPES of lattice arrangement.
 Solid Solution (Contd.)
38

 ORDERED ARRANGEMENT
 This produces an ordered space lattice.
 In this arrangement two types of metal atoms
occupy very specific or ordered (as if) positions
within the crystal, resulting in specific properties.
 This produces a super lattice within the solid
solution, which may distort the original lattice.
This type of change occurs with gold copper
alloys during heat treatments.
 Solid Solution (Contd.)
39

DISORDERED ARRANGEMENT
This produces disordered space lattice if the atoms of
both the metals are randomly distributed in the
space lattice.
DISORDERED ARRANGEMENT
40
 Solid Solution (Contd.)
41

INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION ALLOY

 The atoms of one metal do not replace the
parent atom in a space lattice, instead
occupy a space existing in between the
atoms of the parent metal.
 This can only happen if the atom of the
alloying element is sufficiently small to fit
into the spaces between the atoms of the
parent metal.
 In the molten state metals usually show mutual solubility,
one within another. When the molten mixture is cooled to
below the melting point the following things can occur.

 The component metals may remain soluble in each other

forming a solid solution.
 The solid solution may take one of three forms. It may be
a random solid solution in which the component metal
atoms occupy random sites in a common crystal lattice.
 Another possibility is the formation of an
ordered solid solution in which component metal
atoms occupy specific sites within a common
crystal lattice.
The third type of solid solution is the interstitial solid
solution in which, for binary alloys, the primary lattice
sites are occupied by one metal atom and the atoms of
the second component do not occupy lattice sites but lie
within the interstices of the lattice. This is normally
found where the atomic radius of one component is
much smaller than that of the other.
 Properties Of Solid-solution Type Of Alloys
48

Strong and hard.

High proportional limit.
High tensile strength.
More ductility and malleability.
Have a melting range instead of point.
Can be burnished and worked easily.
High resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
Eutectic mixture

They occur when the metals are miscible in the

liquid state but separate in the solid state. The
two metals will be precipitated as very fine layers
of one metal over the other one : such a
combination as is called an eutectic mixture.
E.g.,72 % silver, 28 % copper.
  CEF
 CDEGF
 ‘E’

Phase diagram for a Binary system where there

Is complete solid insolubility.
 Eutectic Alloys
51

Complete in-solubility in solid state.

The ingredient metals are soluble in each other in
liquid state, but separate out (precipitate) as
different layers in solid state.
Example, silver and copper alloy.
Eutectic Alloys
52
 Eutectic Alloys (Contd.)
53

In this type of alloy, there is one particular

composition at which it behaves similar to pure
metal-that is; it solidifies at a constant temperature
(or a melting point) instead of a range.
Alloys with a composition less than that of eutectic
are hypoeutectic and alloys with a composition more
than eutectic are called hypereutectic
 Eutectic Alloys (Contd.)
54

These alloys are called eutectic because the

temperature at which this occurs is lower than the
fusion temperature of either constituent metals.

Example, Ag-72 per cent and Cu-28 per cent

 Eutectic Alloys (Contd.)
55

Properties – Brittle
Less strong
Less resistance to corrosion
A material of this composition is called a
“Eutectic alloy”

 Important features :
 Hard and Brittle
 Lowest melting alloy of the system - solders
 Poor corrosion resistance
 Time-temperature curve for this alloy has a “Horizontal
plateau” (like that of a pure metal)
 Inter metallic Compounds
57

Inter metallic compounds are those when the metals

are soluble in the liquid state but unite and form a
chemical compound on solidifying.
They are called inter metallic compounds because
the alloy is formed by a chemical reaction between a
metal and metal.
 Inter metallic Compounds (Contd.)
58

Very hard and brittle.

Properties do not resemble the properties of their
parent metals.
 Peritectic Alloys
59

E.g. Platinum-Silver in casting alloy

Limited solid solubility of 2 metals can result in
transformation referred as Peritectic
More Brittle
Reduced corrosion resistance
 Heat Treatment
60

Heat treatment (not melting) of metals in the solid

state is called SOLID STATE REACTIONS.
This is a method to cause diffusion of atoms of the
alloy by heating a solid metal to a certain
temperature and for certain period of time.
This will result in. the changes in the microscopic
structure and physical properties.
 Heat Treatment (Contd.)
61

 Important criteria in this process are:

1. Composition of alloy
2. Temperature to which it is heated
3. Time of heating
4. Method of cooling - cooling slowly in
the air or quenching rapidly in cold
water.
 Purpose of Heat Treatment
62

Shaping and working on the appliance in the

laboratory is made easy when the alloy is soft. This is
the first stage and is called softening heat treatment.
To harden the alloy for oral use, so that it will
withstand oral stresses. The alloy is again heated and
this time it is called hardening heat treatment.
 Types of Heat Treatment
63

Softening Heat treatment

Hardening Heat treatment

Solution Heat treatment

Age Hardening
 Softening heat treatment
64

Also known as ANNEALING. This is done for

structures which are cold worked.
Technique - alloy is placed in an electric furnace at a
temperature of 700°C for 10 minutes and then
rapidly cooled (quenched).
 Softening heat treatment(Contd.)
65

Result of this is reduction in strength, hardness and

pro­portional limit but increase in ductility. In other
words the metal becomes soft. This is also known as
HOMOGENIZATION TREATMENT.
 Hardening heat treatment
66

This is done for cast removable partial

dentures, saddles, bridges, but not for
Inlays.
Technique - The appliance (alloy) is
heat soaked at a temperature between
200-450°C for 15-30 minutes and then
rapidly cooled by quenching.
 Hardening heat treatment(Contd.)
67

The result of this is increase in strength, hardness

and proportional limit but reduction in ductility.
Also known as ORDER HARDENING or
PRECIPITATION HARDENING.
 Solution Heat Treatment Or Solution-Hardening
68

When the alloy is heat soaked, any precipitations

formed during earlier heat treatment, will now once
again become soluble in the solvent metal.
Technique is same as softening heat treatment.
 Age Hardening
69

After solution heat treatment, the alloy is once again

heated to bring about further precipitation and this
time it shows in the metallography as a fine
dispersed phase.
This also causes hardening of the alloy and is known
as age hardening because the alloy will maintain its
quality for many years.
 Metals and alloys are sometimes characterized
using cooling curves. The material is heated till
molten then allowed to cool and a plot of
temperature against time is recorded.

 Super cooling
 Heterogeneous Nucleation
Each alloy grain can be envisaged as having a
concentration of gradient metals; the higher
melting metal being concentrated close to the
nucleus and the lower melting metal close to the
grain boundaries. The material is said to have a
cored structure.

Such coring may influence corrosion resistance

since electrolytic cells may be set up on the
surface of the alloy between areas of different
alloy composition.
 Since coring may markedly reduce the corrosion
resistance of some alloys, a heat treatment is
some times used to eliminate the cored structure.
Such a heat treatment is termed a homogenization
heat treatment.

This involves heating the alloy to a temperature

just below the solidus temperature for a few
minutes to allow diffusion of atoms and the
establishment of homogeneous structure. The
alloy is then normally quenched in order to
prevent grain growth from occurring.
E.g., Au-Ag system.
 If the temperatures T1 and T2 are obtained over
a range of compositions for an alloy system and
their values plotted against percentage
composition, a useful graph emerges.
This is illustrated for a hypothetical solid solution alloy
of metals A and B. The melting points of the pure metals
are indicated by the temperatures TmA and TmB. The
upper and lower temperature limits of the crystallization
range, T1 and T2 are shown for four alloys ranging in
composition from 80% A – 20% B to 20% A - 80% B.
The phase diagram is completed by joining together all
the T1 points and all the T2 points, together with the
melting points of the pure metals, tma and tmb.

At temperatures in the region above the top line, known

as the liquidus line, the alloy is totally liquid. At
temperatures in the region below the bottom line,
known as the solidus line, the alloy is totally solid.
At temperatures in the region between the solidus
and liquidus lines the alloy consists of a mixture of
solid and liquid. The composition of the solid and
liquid phases at any temperature between T1 and T2
can be predicted with the aid of the phase diagram.
 Cobalt- chromium & titanium alloys are used
in prosthetic dentistry for fabrication of
implants

 Nickel chromium alloys are used for porcelain

fused to metal restorations

 Nickel chromium alloys were introduced for

crowns bridges and partial denture frame
works
 A variety of metal alloys are used in dental
specialties. In general they are very strong and stiff
and have excellent tarnish and corrosion and are
biocompatible.
As the grain size becomes smaller the better will
be its physical properties.