OBJECTIVES:

Define terms involving the membrane transport.

Describe plasma membrane structures.

Explain how various transport processes account

for the directional movements of specific
substances across the plasma membrane.
 Plasma Membrane
 Barrier for cell contents and
separates them from the
surrounding environment.
 Double phospholipid layer
– Hydrophilic heads
– Hydrophobic tails
 A phospholipid has a
backbone derived in
carbon molecule called
GLYCEROL, with long
carbon called fatty acid.
 FUNCTION of the cell

• Ability to metabolize (use nutrients to build new

cell material, break down substances & make
ATP)
• Digest foods
• Dispose wastes
• Reproduce
• Grow
• Move
• Respond to stimulus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Membrane Transport

- The means by which substances get through

plasma membranes.

FUNCTION:
• Protein synthesis
• Cell reproduction

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 TERMS:

• Solution
• Solvent
• Solutes
• Intracellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid
• Selective Permeability

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Solutions and Transport

• Solution —homogeneous mixture of two or

more components (ex. Air that we breath, fluid
of plasma membrane, seawater, rubbing
alcohol)
• Solvent— largest amount in the solution
dissolving medium; typically water in the
body
• Solutes—components in smaller quantities
within a solution

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Solutions and Transport
• Intracellular fluid—nucleoplasm and cytosol
- solution containing small amounts of gases
(O 2 and CO2). Nutrients in salts dissolved in
water.
• Interstitial fluid—fluid on the exterior of the cell
- continuously bathes the exterior of our cell
- contains thousands of nutrients (amino acids,
sugars, fatty acids, vitamins), regulatory subs.
(hormones, neurotransmitters, salts & waste
products)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Selective Permeability

• The plasma membrane allows some materials

to pass while excluding others.
• This permeability influences movement both
into and out of the cell.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Cell Physiology: Membrane Transport

• Two basic methods of transport

• Passive processes
• No energy is required
• Active processes
• Cell must provide metabolic energy (ATP)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Cell Physiology: Membrane Transport

• Two basic methods of transport

• Passive processes
• No energy is required
• Active processes
• Cell must provide metabolic energy (ATP)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Cell Physiology: Membrane Transport

• Two basic methods of transport

• Passive processes
• Diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated diffusion
• Filtration

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Active Processes

• Two common forms of active transport

• Active transport (solute pumping)
• Vesicular transport
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Passive Processes
• Diffusion
• Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly
within a solution
• Movement is from high concentration to low
concentration, or down a concentration gradient
• Molecules will diffuse only if:
(1) The molecules are small enough to pass through the
membrane’s pores.
(2) The molecule are lipid soluble
(3) The molecules are assisted by a membrane carrier

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.9
 Passive Processes

• Types of diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• An unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble (fats, fat-soluble
vitamins, oxygen, carbon dioxide)
materials or small enough to pass through
membrane pores

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Extracellular fluid
Lipid-
soluble
solutes

Cytoplasm

(a) Simple diffusion

of fat-soluble
molecules
directly through
the phospholipid
bilayer
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.10a
 Passive Processes

• Types of diffusion (continued)

• Osmosis—simple diffusion of water
- is the net movement of solvent
molecules from a region of high solvent
potential to a region of lower solvent.
• Highly polar water molecules easily cross
the plasma membrane through aquaporins
(water pores) created by proteins in the
membrane.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Water
molecules

Lipid
bilayer

(d) Osmosis, diffusion

of water through a
specific channel
protein (aquaporin)
or through the lipid
bilayer
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.10d
 • Isotonic – same solute & water concentration
- No changes in cells, RBCs retain their normal size & disc like
shape.
• Hypertonic – contains more solutes or dissolved subs, than there inside
the cells
- cell begin to shrink
- given to patients with edema (swelling of the feet and
hands due to fluid retention)
• Hypotonic – solution contains fewer solutes (ex. Distilled water)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Passive Processes

• Facilitated diffusion
• Transports lipid-insoluble and large
substances (glucose)
• Substances require a protein carrier for
passive transport (use a protein
membrane protein channel) to move
glucose & certain other solutes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Lipid- Small lipid-
insoluble insoluble
solutes solutes

(b) Carrier-mediated facilitated (c) Channel-mediated

diffusion via protein carrier facilitated diffusion
specific for one chemical; through a channel
binding of substrate causes protein; mostly ions
shape change in transport selected on basis
protein of size and charge
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.10b–c
 Passive Processes

• Filtration
• Water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
• A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a
high-pressure area to a lower pressure
area

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Active Processes

• Substances are transported that are unable to

pass by diffusion
• Substances may be too large
• Substances may not be able to dissolve in
the fat core of the membrane
• Substances may have to move against a
concentration gradient
• ATP is used for transport

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Active Processes

• Two common forms of active transport

• Active transport (solute pumping)
• Vesicular transport
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Active Processes

• Active transport (solute pumping)

• Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are
transported by protein carriers called solute
pumps
• ATP energizes protein carriers
• In most cases, substances are moved
against concentration gradients

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na +
K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate

Na to the pump protein
+ Na+ to the outside. restores the original
stimulates phosphorylation Extracellular K+ binds, conformation of the pump
by ATP, which causes the causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
pump protein to change its phosphate group. cytoplasm and Na+ sites are
shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.11

 Extracellular fluid

Na+

Na+

ATP Na+
1

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic
Na+ to the pump protein
stimulates phosphorylation
by ATP, which causes the
pump protein to change its
shape.

Cytoplasm

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.11, step 1

 Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na +
K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P
ATP Na+
1 2

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels

Na to the pump protein
+ Na+ to the outside.
stimulates phosphorylation Extracellular K+ binds,
by ATP, which causes the causing release of the
pump protein to change its phosphate group.
shape.

Cytoplasm

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.11, step 2

 Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na +
K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate

Na to the pump protein
+ Na+ to the outside. restores the original
stimulates phosphorylation Extracellular K+ binds, conformation of the pump
by ATP, which causes the causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
pump protein to change its phosphate group. cytoplasm and Na+ sites are
shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.11, step 3

 Active Processes

• Vesicular transport (bulk)

• Exocytosis
• Moves materials out of the cell

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Extracellular Plasma
fluid membrane
SNARE
(t-SNARE)
• Material is carried
1 The membrane-
in a membranous
Vesicle
bound vesicle
migrates to the
vesicle
SNARE plasma membrane.
(v-SNARE)
Molecule
to be
secreted
Secretory
vesicle Cytoplasm

• Vesicle Fusion pore formed

migrates to 2 There,
v-SNAREs bind
plasma with t-SNAREs, the
vesicle and plasma
membrane fuse,
membrane Fused
SNAREs
and a pore opens
up.
• Vesicle
combines with
plasma
3 Vesicle
contents are
released to the
membrane
cell exterior.
• Material is
emptied to the
(a) The process of exocytosis
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. outside Figure 3.12a
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.12b
 Active Processes

• Vesicular transport (continued)

• Endocytosis
• Extracellular substances are engulfed by
being enclosed in a membranous vescicle
• Types of endocytosis
• Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
• Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

3 Membranes and
receptors (if present)
Pit recycled to plasma
membrane

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13a

 Extracellular
fluid Plasma
membrane

1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome
for digestion
Ingested
substance

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13a, step 1

 Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13a, step 2

 Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

3 Membranes and
receptors (if present)
Pit recycled to plasma
membrane

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13a, step 3

 Extracellular Cytoplasm
fluid
Bacterium
or other
particle

Pseudopod

(b)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13b
 Membrane
receptor

(c)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13c
 Protein Synthesis

• Gene—DNA segment that carries a blueprint

for building one protein
• Proteins have many functions
• Building materials for cells
• Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Role of RNA

• Transfer RNA (tRNA)

• Transfers appropriate amino acids to the
ribosome for building the protein
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are
built
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Carries the instructions for building a protein
from the nucleus to the ribosome

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Transcription and Translation

• Transcription
• Transfer of information from DNA’s base
sequence to the complimentary base
sequence of mRNA
• Three-base sequences on mRNA are called
codons

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Transcription and Translation

• Translation
• Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated
to an amino acid sequence
• Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U
T U 1 mRNA specifying
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A
G
A made on DNA template.
C A
G G C
C C A
A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

4 As the ribosome Growing

moves along the polypeptide
Met lle
mRNA, a new amino chain
acid is added to the Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
growing protein chain. recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
5 Released tRNA U A U
reenters the cytoplasmic bearing anticodon
pool, ready to be
recharged with a new
G
amino acid. AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
UU
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.16

 Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U
T U 1 mRNA specifying
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A
G
A made on DNA template.
C A
G G C
C C A
A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
Amino
mRNA acids

Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

Growing
Met polypeptide
chain lle
Gly
Ser
Phe
Ala
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
UU
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.16, step 1

 Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U
T U 1 mRNA specifying
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A
G
A made on DNA template.
C A
G G C
C C A
A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

Growing
Met polypeptide
chain lle
Gly
Ser
Phe
Ala
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
UU
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.16, step 2

 Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U
T U 1 mRNA specifying
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A
G
A made on DNA template.
C A
G G C
C C A
A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

Growing
Met polypeptide
chain lle
Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
UU
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.16, step 3

 Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U
T U 1 mRNA specifying
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A
G
A made on DNA template.
C A
G G C
C C A
A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

4 As the ribosome Growing

moves along the polypeptide
Met lle
mRNA, a new amino chain
acid is added to the Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
growing protein chain. recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
UU
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.16, step 4

 Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U
T U 1 mRNA specifying
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A
G
A made on DNA template.
C A
G G C
C C A
A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

4 As the ribosome Growing

moves along the polypeptide
Met lle
mRNA, a new amino chain
acid is added to the Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
growing protein chain. recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
5 Released tRNA U A U
reenters the cytoplasmic bearing anticodon
pool, ready to be
recharged with a new
G
amino acid. AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
UU
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.16, step 5

 Body Tissues

• Tissues
• Groups of cells with similar structure and
function
• Four primary types
• Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
• Connective tissue
• Muscle tissue
• Nervous tissue

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Epithelial Tissues

• Locations
• Body coverings
• Body linings
• Glandular tissue
• Functions
• Protection
• Absorption
• Filtration
• Secretion

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Epithelium Characteristics

• Cells fit closely together and often form sheets

• The apical surface is the free surface of the
tissue
• The lower surface of the epithelium rests on a
basement membrane
• Avascular (no blood supply)
• Regenerate easily if well nourished

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Apical surface

Basal Simple
surface

Apical surface

Basal
surface Stratified
(a) Classification based on number of cell layers
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.17a
 Classification of Epithelia

• Number of cell layers

• Simple—one layer
• Stratified—more than one layer

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Apical surface

Basal Simple
surface

Apical surface

Basal
surface Stratified
(a) Classification based on number of cell layers
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.17a
 Classification of Epithelia

• Shape of cells
• Squamous
• flattened
• Cuboidal
• cube-shaped
• Columnar
• column-like

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.17b
 Simple Epithelia

• Simple squamous
• Single layer of flat cells
• Location - usually forms membranes
• Lines body cavities
• Lines lungs and capillaries
• Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion
in membranes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Air sacs of
lungs

Nucleus of Nuclei of
squamous squamous
epithelial cell epithelial
cells

Basement
membrane Photomicrograph: Simple
squamous epithelium forming part
(a) Diagram: Simple squamous of the alveolar (air sac) walls (185×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18a

 Simple Epithelia

• Simple cuboidal
• Single layer of cube-like cells
• Locations
• Common in glands and their ducts
• Forms walls of kidney tubules
• Covers the ovaries
• Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated
types propel mucus or reproductive cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nucleus of Simple
simple cuboidal
cuboidal epithelial
epithelial cells
cell
Basement
Basement membrane
membrane
Connective
tissue

Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal

(b) Diagram: Simple cuboidal epithelium in kidney tubules (250×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18b

 Simple Epithelia

• Simple columnar
• Single layer of tall cells
• Often includes mucus-producing goblet cells
• Location - lines digestive tract
• Functions in secretion and absorption;
ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive
cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Simple
columnar
Nucleus of simple epithelial
columnar epithelial cell cell
Goblet cell

Basement
membrane
Connective
Basement tissue
membrane
Photomicrograph: Simple columnar
epithelium of the small intestine
(430×).
(c) Diagram: Simple columnar

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18c

 Simple Epithelia

• Pseudostratified columnar
• Single layer, but some cells are shorter than
others
• Often looks like a double layer of cells but all
cells rest on the basement membrane
• Location - respiratory tract, where it is
ciliated
• Functions in absorption or secretion

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Cilia
Pseudo-
stratified
epithelial
layer Pseudo-
stratified
epithelial
layer
Basement
membrane
Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue

Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium lining
(d) Diagram: Pseudostratified (ciliated) the human trachea (430×).
columnar

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18d

 Stratified Epithelia

• Stratified squamous
• Cells at the apical surface are flattened
• Functions as a protective covering where
friction is common
• Locations - lining of the:
• Skin
• Mouth
• Esophagus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nuclei

Stratified
squamous
Stratified
epithelium
squamous
epithelium

Basement Basement
membrane membrane
Connective
Photomicrograph: Stratified tissue
squamous epithelium lining of
(e) Diagram: Stratified squamous the esophagus (140×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18e

 Stratified Epithelia

• Stratified cuboidal—two layers of cuboidal

cells; functions in protection
• Stratified columnar—surface cells are
columnar, cells underneath vary in size and
shape; functions in protection
• Stratified cuboidal and columnar
• Rare in human body
• Found mainly in ducts of large glands

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Stratified Epithelia

• Transitional epithelium
• Composed of modified stratified squamous
epithelium
• Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
stretching
• Functions in stretching and the ability to
return to normal shape
• Location - lines organs of the urinary system

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Basement
membrane
Transi-
tional
epithelium
Transitional
Basement epithelium
membrane
Connective
tissue

Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining of

the bladder, relaxed state (215×); surface rounded
cells flatten and elongate when the bladder fills
(f) Diagram: Transitional with urine.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18f

 Glandular Epithelium

• Gland
• One or more cells responsible for secreting
a particular product
• Secretions contain protein molecules in an
aqueous (water-based) fluid

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Glandular Epithelium

• Two major gland types

• Endocrine gland
• Ductless since secretions diffuse into
blood vessels
• All secretions are hormones
• Exocrine gland
• Secretions empty through ducts to the
epithelial surface
• Include sweat and oil glands

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Connective Tissue

• Found everywhere in the body

• Includes the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues
• Functions
• Binds body tissues together
• Supports the body
• Provides protection

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Connective Tissue Characteristics

• Variations in blood supply

• Some tissue types are well vascularized
• Some have a poor blood supply or are
avascular
• Extracellular matrix
• Non-living material that surrounds living
cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Extracellular Matrix
• Two main elements
• Ground substance—mostly water along with
adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
• Fibers
• Produced by the cells
• Three types
• Collagen (white) fibers
• Elastic (yellow) fibers
• Reticular fibers

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Connective Tissue Types

• Bone (osseous tissue)

• Composed of
• Bone cells in lacunae (cavities)
• Hard matrix of calcium salts
• Large numbers of collagen fibers
• Functions to protect and support the body

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Bone cells in
lacunae
Central canal

Lacunae

Lamella

(a) Diagram: Bone Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view

of ground bone (300×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19a

 Connective Tissue Types
• Hyaline cartilage
• Most common type of cartilage
• Composed of
• Abundant collagen fibers
• Rubbery matrix
• Locations
• Larynx
• Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
• Functions as a more flexible skeletal element than
bone

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chondrocyte
(Cartilage cell)

Chondrocyte
in lacuna

Lacunae

Matrix

(b) Diagram: Hyaline cartilage Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage

from the trachea (500×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19b

 Connective Tissue Types

• Elastic cartilage
• Provides elasticity
• Location
• Supports the external ear
• Fibrocartilage
• Highly compressible
• Location
• Forms cushion-like discs between
vertebrae

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chondrocytes
in lacunae

Chondro-
cites in
lacunae Collagen fiber
Collagen
fibers

(c) Diagram: Fibrocartilage Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an

intervertebral disc (110×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19c

 Connective Tissue Types

• Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)

• Main matrix element is collagen fiber
• Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
• Locations
• Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
• Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints
• Dermis—lower layers of the skin

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ligament
Tendon Collagen
fibers

Collagen
fibers Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Nuclei of
fibroblasts

(d) Diagram: Dense fibrous Photomicrograph: Dense fibrous connective tissue

from a tendon (500×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19d

 Connective Tissue Types

• Loose connective tissue types

• Areolar tissue
• Most widely distributed connective tissue
• Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
• Functions as a packing tissue
• Contains all fiber types
• Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Mucosa
epithelium
Lamina Elastic
propria fibers

Collagen
fibers

Fibers of Fibroblast
matrix nuclei

Nuclei of
fibroblasts

(e) Diagram: Areolar Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue,

a
soft packaging tissue of the body (300×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19e

 Connective Tissue Types

• Loose connective tissue types

• Adipose tissue
• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat
globules predominate
• Many cells contain large lipid deposits
• Functions
• Insulates the body
• Protects some organs
• Serves as a site of fuel storage

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nuclei of
fat cells

Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
Nuclei of
fat cells
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet

(f) Diagram: Adipose Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the

subcutaneous layer beneath the skin (430×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19f

 Connective Tissue Types

• Loose connective tissue types

• Reticular connective tissue
• Delicate network of interwoven fibers
• Locations
• Forms stroma (internal supporting
network) of lymphoid organs
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Bone marrow

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Spleen

White blood cell

(lymphocyte)
Reticular
cell Reticular fibers
Blood
cell
Reticular
fibers

(g) Diagram: Reticular Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network

of reticular connective tissue (430×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19g

 Connective Tissue Types

• Blood (vascular tissue)

• Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix called
blood plasma
• Fibers are visible during clotting
• Functions as the transport vehicle for
materials

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Blood cells
in capillary

Neutrophil
(white blood
cell)

White Red blood

blood cell cells

Monocyte
Red (white blood
blood cells cell)
(h) Diagram: Blood Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1300×)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19h

 Muscle Tissue

• Function is to produce movement

• Three types
• Skeletal muscle
• Cardiac muscle
• Smooth muscle

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Muscle Tissue Types

• Skeletal muscle
• Under voluntary control
• Contracts to pull on bones or skin
• Produces gross body movements or facial
expressions
• Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
• Striated
• Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
• Long, cylindrical cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nuclei

Part of muscle
fiber

(a) Diagram: Skeletal muscle Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (approx. 300×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.20a

 Muscle Tissue Types

• Cardiac muscle
• Under involuntary control
• Found only in the heart
• Function is to pump blood
• Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
• Striated
• One nucleus per cell
• Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle
cells at intercalated disks

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Intercalated
discs

Nucleus

(b) Diagram: Cardiac muscle Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (430×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.20b

 Muscle Tissue Types

• Smooth muscle
• Under involuntary muscle
• Found in walls of hollow organs such as
stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
• Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
• No visible striations
• One nucleus per cell
• Spindle-shaped cells

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Smooth
muscle cell

Nuclei

(c) Diagram: Smooth muscle Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (approx. 300×).

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.20c

 Nervous Tissue

• Composed of neurons and nerve support cells

• Function is to send impulses to other areas of
the body
• Irritability
• Conductivity
• Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect,
and support neurons

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Brain

Nuclei of
Spinal supporting
cord cells

Cell body
Nuclei of of neuron
supporting
cells
Cell body Neuron
of neuron processes

Neuron
processes
Diagram: Nervous tissue Photomicrograph: Neurons (150×)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.21

 Nervous tissue: Internal communication
• Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement

• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)
• Muscles of heart (cardiac)
• Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)

Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different

environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters
• Lining of GI tract organs and other hollow organs
• Skin surface (epidermis)

Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds

other tissues together
• Bones
• Tendons
• Fat and other soft padding tissue

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.22

 Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)

• Regeneration
• Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same
kind of cells
• Fibrosis
• Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar
tissue)
• Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends
on:
• Type of tissue damaged
• Severity of the injury

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Events in Tissue Repair
• Inflammation
• Capillaries become very permeable
• Clotting proteins migrate into the area from the
blood stream
• A clot walls off the injured area
• Granulation tissue forms
• Growth of new capillaries
• Rebuild collagen fibers
• Regeneration of surface epithelium
• Scab detaches

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Regeneration of Tissues

• Tissues that regenerate easily

• Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
• Fibrous connective tissues and bone
• Tissues that regenerate poorly
• Skeletal muscle
• Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
• Cardiac muscle
• Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Developmental Aspects of Tissue

• Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary

germ layers
• Muscle and connective tissue arise from the
mesoderm
• Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
• With old age, there is a decrease in mass and
viability in most tissues

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.