 One of the basic requirements of an ideal airport site is that the topography should be

undulating i.e. free from surface unevenness. It means that the airport ground should be well
graded. If the site is not properly graded, the cost of airport grading may form a large
percentage of the total cost of the pavement work.
 
 The natural uneven surface at the site of airport gives rise to a number of problems, the most
important one being its drainage facilities. These two aspects of the airport, namely, grading
and drainage, are closely related to each other and it will be interesting to know how best they
can be combined to get the satisfactory result.

IMPORTANCE OF GRADING
 
The highway grading can be said to be a two dimensional problem because it mainly involves
length and height. The width of the highway pavement is small and immaterial and for which it
is possible to provide the cross-drainage easily. The airport grading is a three dimensional
problem because a large area of width somewhat equal to the length is also involved.
 
 The proper grading of an airport site is important because of the following reasons:  
 It enables to fix the gradients for the landing area so that the cost of earthwork is minimum.
  It fixes the general pattern of the surface drainage for the airport.
  it gives such a slope to the ground that the rain water is drained away quickly at suitable
disposal outlets.
 It makes the site fit for the construction of various airport elements like runways, taxiways,
aprons, etc.
Following general requirements should be observed in case of the airport
grading:
 
(1) Cuts and fills: The quantity of earthwork depends on the grading. An ideal grading
pattern balances the cut and fills quantities of the earthwork.
(2) Drainage: To ensure the stability of the pavements and embankments, proper surface
and sub-surface drainage facilities should be planned.
(3) Equipment: The choice of the equipment for the operations, of clearing, grading and
compaction will depend on the nature of material involved, local practice, size of project,
time allotted to complete the work, etc.
(4) Grade lines: Sometimes, the whole airfield may have to" be graded. In such cases, the
grade lines have got to be designed, very carefully because moving up or down of the
grade line even by a fraction of a centimeter will involve a substantial change in the
quantity of earthwork.
(5) Grading plans: It is necessary to prepare the grading plans so that the surface water is
carried away from the aprons, terminal building, taxiways and runways.
(6) Ground near landing strips: It is necessary to carry out the grading of the areas at the
ends of the landing strips as a precautionary measure. Such a practice will cause the
least damage to the aircraft which has entered these areas unintentionally due to
unsuccessful take-off or over-shooting or under-shooting the strip while landing.
(7) Intersection: As the landing strips may cross at varying angles, it has to be kept in mind
that the runways have common grade elevations at the intersections.
(8) Sub grade soils: It should be seen that the sub grade soils are of uniform character. For
this purpose, necessary soil surveys or investigations should be carried out
simultaneously.

OPERATION OF GRADING: 
Following procedure is adopted for establishing grade line
(i) Separate profiles for each of the proposed runway are drawn.
(ii) The most important profile is selected and grade is established for the same by trial.
EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS:

Following are the two methods adopted for the computation of the earthwork:
 (1) Cross-sectional method
(2) Mass-haul curve method.
 
(1) Cross-sectional method: The cross-sectional areas at suitable intervals of say 30
meters are determined and the volume of earthwork is worked out by applying anyone
of the following, two formulas:

(2) Mass-haul curve method: The cost of excavation depends not only on the volume of
material excavated, but also upon its disposal. The distance up to which no charge is to
be paid to the Contractor for haulage is known as the free haul distance. The term
economical haul is defined as the maximum distance up to which the excavated
material may be utilized in filling up any depression. It is determined by the local
conditions, the cost of labor, the cost of transportation of material, etc.  
 It should be observed that the movement of the materials is not haphazard. But it must
be properly planned from cuts to fill so as to facilitate construction and to reduce the
cost of earthwork operations. For determining the best planned movement of the
materials, the use is made of the mass-haul curve.
 A mass-haul diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earth excavation
and embankment involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be
moved. It thus shows graphical/l the haul length, the economic direction of haul and the
position along the route where the cut balances the fill.
 The construction of a mass-haul curve is quite laborious. But it gives the comparative
economy of the different alternatives of hauling and of excavation and filling. It will also
suggest whether it will be economical to waste material and borrow or to haul' for long
distances.
AIMS OF AIRPORT DRAINAGE

 Following are the aims for providing airport drainage:

 (i) If the sub-surface drainage system is improper, it may moisten and weaken the sub
grade and thus, reduce it. load bearing capacity, resulting in the failure of pavement·
of runways, taxiways, etc.
(ii) If the surface drainage system is improper, it may result in the ponding on the
pavements of runways, taxiway and aprons which might prove hazardous to the
takeoff and landing operations of the aircraft.  
(iii) It grants longevity to the pavements.
(iv) It increases the efficiency of the airport.
(v) It is essential for proper and safe functioning of the aircraft
(vi) It reduces the maintenance cost of an airport.
(vii) It shortens the periods during which the airport might have to be kept out of use due
to inundation, etc. The closing down of the airport results in great loss in addition to
the inconvenience of the passengers.
 
FUNCTIONS OF AIRPORT DRAINAGE
 
Following are the three important functions or purposes of an airport drainage system
(i) To intercept and divert the surface and groundwater flow originating from lands
adjacent to the airport.
(ii)To lower the sub-surface water levels in the airport so as to be within permissible limit.
 (iii) To remove the surface runoff from the airport.
 In rare case only, the natural drainage on a site by itself will be sufficient to satisfy these
functions. Hence, the artificial drainage must be installed in most of the cases.
SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRPORT DRAINAGE
 
The airport drainage being a complex problem possesses the following special characteristics:

(i) Absence of side surface ditches or drains;

(ii) Combined drainage pipe for surface and sub-surface drainage;
(iii) Comparatively flat longitudinal and transverse grades;
(iv) Concentration of the outfall flow;
(v) Extensive area under consideration;
(vi) Heavy concentrated wheel loads of the modern aircraft;
(vii) Large percentage of paved areas in the form of the aprons, taxiways and runways;
(viii) Proper provision of future runway extension;
(ix) Requirement of rapid drainage for the safety of the aircraft operations;
(x) Shallow water courses;
(xi) Varying soil conditions; etc.
 
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF AIRPORT DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Following are the four basic requirements of an airport drainage system:
(1) Capacity: The capacity of the drain pipe should be sufficient to carry the surface water as well
as the ground water.
(2) Future expansion: The system should be designed in such a way that future extensions or
additional works of runways, taxiways, etc. are easily accommodated when the need arises.
(3) Rapid drainage: The system should grant the speedy collection and removal of the drained
water.
(4) Strength: The drain pipe material should be of sufficient strength to withstand the heavy
concentrated wheel loads of the vehicles.
SURFACE DRAINAGE:
  The water falls on the surface in the form of rain or snow. The rainfall records are helpful in
estimating the rainfall intensities that can be expected to occur during certain time
intervals. The short duration rainfall produces higher intensity of rain. The pavement are
generally designed for the maximum intensity of rainfall for one hour period which is not
likely to occur more than once each' year in the particular area where the airport is located.
It is thus assumed that the airport will temporarily remain out of use once' each year for a
very short duration.
The topic of the airport surface drainage will be studied under the following five headings:

(1) Objectives of surface drainage

(2) Time of concentration
(3) Estimating runoff
(4) Design procedure
(5) Layout of surface drainage.
 
(1) Objectives of surface drainage: Following objectives should be aimed while designing
the surface drainage system for a particular airfield consistent with the economic feasibility:
(i) It should be practicable to carry out the usual airport operations under all climatic conditions.
(ii) The removal of surface water for the storms having value greater than the design storm
should be such that minimum damage of the airfield facilities occurs.
(iii) The surface water should be collected and removed i such a way that least interruption is
caused to the norm traffic, subsoil is not saturated and damage to the airfield facilities is not
caused.
(iv) The system should be designed in such a way that it c be extended smoothly in future
without interrupting the normal airport traffic. .
(v) The system should result in minimum maintenance operational difficulties.
(2) Time of concentration: As the rain falls on the ground all the area to be served by the sewer
does not start to contribute immediately to the flow of sewer. But the flow is built-up gradual as
follows:
(i) The area just near the sewer line will start contributing first and it will go on increasing as more
and more area starts to contribute.
(ii) When the whole area is contributing to the flow of sewer, the maximum limit of flow will be
reached and it will be equal to the rate of precipitation of rain water.
(iii) The maximum flow continues until the storm stops. The flow then gradually falls down as the
area near the sewer line stops contributing firstly, while flow continues to come for considerable
time from the distant areas.
The total time required by the flow to reach to the maximum limit is known as the time of
concentration and it consists of two parts:
(a) Time of entry, and
(b) Time of flow.
(a) Time of entry: The time required by the storm water to reach to the uppermost inlet of
sewer line is known as the time of entry. The value of time of entry depends on many
circumstances, the chief being size, shape and slope of the area. Various authors have given
different values for the time of entry. Lloyd-Davies gave time of entry for paved surfaces as 1 to 3
minutes. According to Horner, the time of entry is about 2 to 5 minutes and according to Metcalf
and Eddy, it is about 3 to 20 minutes. Appleby has recommended time of entry from 7 to 15
minutes. Thus, extreme care is to be taken to assume the proper value of time of entry.
Generally, the time of entry for paved surfaces is taken as about one minute for every 6 m
length.
(ii) Time of flow: The time taken by storm water to flow down the sewer up to a particular point is
known as the time of flow and it depends on length, size, slope and smoothness of sewer. The
time of flow can be easily determined by applying the principles of hydraulics. If velocity of flow
and distance to be traversed are known, the time of flow can be determined by the relation:
Time of flow = Distance to be traversed
Velocity of flow
The addition of time of entry and time of flow gives the time of concentration.
 
The importance of time of concentration in the design of storm water sewers lies in the
fact that out of all the storms of equal frequency of occurrence, that storm which has
duration equal to the time of concentration, produces the maximum flow in sewer.
 
(3) Estimating runoff: The quantity of water that will enter sewer is to be carefully
determined. It involves various factors such as intensity of rainfall, characteristics of
catchment area, duration of storm, etc. The rational method is generally adopted for
estimating the runoff for airport surface drainage system. In this method, the
following three factors are combined in the form of an equation:
 
(i) Catchment area A,
(ii) Impermeability factor of the surface of catchment area I, and
(iii) Intensity of rainfall R.
 
The general equation, therefore, becomes as follows:
 
 Q = KAIR
Where
Q = runoff from area
K = Constant which permits expression factor in convenient units.
 
If Q = runoff in m3 per second.
  A= area in hectares
I = intensity of rainfall mm per hour.
 
The value of k is found as per follows 
Q = 10000A x I x 1 x 1
1000 3600
 
Q = AIR
360
Hence, K is equal to 1/360
 
 Some quantity of rain water that falls on the ground is absorbed by soil and the percentage of
rain water that enters the sewer is known as the impermeability factor. Table 8-1 gives the
impermeability factors for various types of surfaces. .
The impermeability factor for each type of surface is assume by considering the nature of
surfaces and the average impermeability factor for the whole area is then worked out as
follows:
Let a1, a2, a3.... be the areas of different surfaces;
 i1, i2, i3,······· be the corresponding impermeability factors for the different surfaces.  
Impermeable area = al i1 + a2 i2 + a3 i3 +…….
 
(4) Design procedure: For the design of sewers, the following procedure is adopted:
 
(i) The proposed arrangement of sewers is worked out.
(ii) The runoff is estimated for each sewer by applying suitable values of time of
concentration, intensity of rainfall, nature of topography, etc.
(iii) A suitable value for the velocity of flow is then determined. A minimum self-cleansing
velocity of 75 cm per second is usually adopted to provide sufficient scouring action so
that silting will not become a problem.
(iv) The section of sewer is then easily worked out by the relation:

Quantity of sewage = area of sewer x velocity of flow.  

(v) The slope of sewer line is worked out and longitudinal sections of each sewer are drawn to
a suitable scale. These sections show invert levels and all sewer appurtenances.
The main factors which influence the flow of storm water are conditions of flow, cross-
sectional area of sewer, roughness of interior surface, slope of sewer, etc. There are
various empirical formulas, charts, diagrams and graphs which are used to design the
sewers. The charts, diagrams and graphs directly give all the elements required in the
sewer design. It is therefore desirable to make free use of such facilities wherever
possible.
 (5) Layout of surface drainage: The water from a drainage area is collected into the storm
drain by means of inlets. The structures of an inlet consist of concrete box, the top of
which is covered with grating made of cast-iron, cast-steel or reinforced concrete. It should
be seen that the grating is able to support the aircraft wheel loads. The location of the
inlets depends on the' configuration of the airport and on the grading plan. If there is a
taxiway parallel to the runway, the inlets are placed in a valley, between runway and
taxiways. If there is no parallel taxiway, the drains are placed near the edge of the runway
pavement or at the toe of the slope of the graded area. . The inlets on the aprons are
generally placed in the pavement: floor as this is the
only way to drain a large area. However, all; gratings should be securely fastened to the frames so that they will
not become loose with the passage of traffic.
The finished grade contour map of the runways, taxiways and aprons is extremely helpful for the layout of a
storm drain system for the airfield. It is quite likely that several trial drainage layouts: may be necessary
before the most economical system can be; selected or recommended.
 
(1) Meaning of the term: The term ponding is used to indicate; simply a means of providing temporary
storage of runoff prior t its entry into the underground drainage system.
 
(2) Necessity: If the airport site is subject to high rainfall intensities, the drains of large size will be required to
remove the storm water. Under such circumstances, the ponding may be us to effect a reduction in the cost
of installation of the drainage, system. The major runways are provided with the drainage facilities that
would prevent them from being put out of operation and some ponding is tolerated on the other portions of
the airfield.
 
(3) Importance: It is desirable to provide ponding wherever practicable due to the fact that it grants protection
to the pavement areas from damage due to storms of intensity greater than the design value.
 
(4) Location: The ponding may be permissible on open airfield areas and graded areas where it would not
saturate or damage the sub grades or base courses. It is prohibited on areas that might result in damage
due to the saturation of pavement sub grade or base course and such areas include runways, taxiway
pavements, parking aprons, etc. It is considered essential that all ponding area edges be kept at least 22.50
m from the edges of pavements.
 
(5) Design process: For the purpose of design, the ponded volume may be assumed to be an inverted pyramid
or a truncated pyramid with height as the depth of water above the inlet at any stage. The area of the base
of the pyramid is taken as the surface area of the pond.
 
The first step in the design process is to establish the limits of the ponding area. Then, with the help of grading
and drainage plan, the volumes in the various ponds are computed. A curve showing duration of storms and
runoff is prepared.
 
SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE: 
The development of science of soil mechanics has shown that the increase in the moisture content of
the soil beyond a certain limit leads to the decrease in the strength of soil. It is therefore
necessary to have an efficient sub-surface drainage system for keeping the pavement surface in
good order.
 
The topic of the sub-surface drainage will be studied under the following six headings:
 
(1) Functions of sub-surface drainage
(2) Changes in moisture content
(3) Base course and sub grade drainage
(4) Intercepting drainage
(5) Drainability of soils
(6) Methods of sub-surface drainage.
 
(1) Functions of sub-surface drainage: Following are the main functions of the sub-surface
drainage:
 
(i) To intercept, collect and remove the water flowing from springs or pervious strata.
 
(ii) To lower the ground water level in the sub grade beneath the pavement.
 
(iii) To remove water from a base course.
 
(2) Changes in moisture content: The moisture content of sub grade soil changes due to a
number of causes and they can, be enumerated as follows:
(i) Movement of capillary water;
 (ii) Percolation of water into the sub grade through cracks of the pavement surface;
 (iii) Rise or fall in the level of the water table;
(iv) Seepage of water into the sub grade from higher groun adjacent to the pavement;
 (v) Transfer of moisture either from or to the soil in t verges as a result of difference in moisture
content; (vi) transfer of moisture from or to lower soil layers b suction;  
(vii) Transfer of water vapor through the soil; etc
 
(3) Base course and sub grade drainage: The drainage base course is generally required
under the following three conditions.
 
(i) The ground water is expected to rise to the level of t base course.
 
(ii) The pavement is subject to frequent inundation and sub grade is highly impervious.
 
(iii) There are chances for the frost action to Occur beneath the pavement.
 
The base courses are usually drained by installing sub-surface drains adjacent to and parallel to
the edges of the pavement
 
Sub grade drainage is desirable at places where the water may rise beneath the pavement to less
than 30 cm below the base course.
 
The sub grades are usually drained by installing pipes along the edges of the pavement and in
some cases, where the ground water is extremely high, underneath the pavements. When
these drains are installed along the edges of the pavement, they may also serve the purpose
of draining the base course.
(4) Intercepting drainage: At places where the sub-surface waters from the adjacent
areas are seeping towards the airport pavements, the intercepting drainage becomes
highly desirable. The locations requiring the intercepting drainage should be selected
after careful study and investigations.
 
The intercepting drainage can be accomplished by means of open ditches placed far
away from the pavement areas. If this is not possible, then the sub drains of 15 cm
diameter and not exceeding 300 m in length may be used.
 
(5) Drainability of soils: Some types of soils like gravely sands, sand and sandy loams
are usually self-draining and hence, they require very little, if any, sub-surface
drainage.
For draining clay loams, sandy clay loams and certain silty loams, the sub-surface
drainage can be effective and the percentage of sand in these soils largely
determines how drainable they are.
 
The soils containing a high percentage of silty and clay are almost impossible to drain
and for such soils, the sub-surface drainage becomes very problematical.
 
(6) Methods of sub-surface drainage: The methods adopted for the sub-surface
drainage can be grouped in the following three categories:  
 Methods to control capillary rise
 Methods to control seepage flow
 Methods to lower water table.
  
 (i)Methods to control capillary
rise: When there are chances for
water to reach the level of sub grade
through the capillary rise, it becomes
necessary to arrest such action by
providing suitable capillary cut-off
between the sub grade and highest
water table level. When the
construction of pavement in
embankment is in progress, the
capillary cut-off may be provided in
one of the following ways
 (ii) Methods to control seepage
flow: If the ground is sloping and the
seepage zone is at a depth of about 60
cm to 90 cm from the edge of
pavement, the perforated drain pipe
with filter material is provided, as
shown in figure, to lower the seepage
line. The trench for laying the drain
pipe is kept above the sloping
impervious layer.
 If the pavement is partly in cutting and
partly in embankment, as shown in fig.
8-4, the seepage flow can be arrested
on the cutting side by perforated drain
pipe and the water can be disposed off
through cross drain pipes on the
sloping side.
 (iii) Methods to lower water table: In order to
bring down the level of water table for pavements
running in flat country with low embankments, the
longitudinal sub-surface drains or pipe drains are
placed below the surface of the ground in the
permeable saturated stratum.
  
 The pipe drains may be vitrified clay with open
joints butting against each other or they may be
perforated at top. They may also be constructed of
cement concrete or brick masonry with covering of
perforated sheet.
  
 The longitudinal pipe drains may be laid on sides of
the pavement, as shown in fig. 8-5 or in the centre
of the pavement, as shown in fig. 8-6, depending
upon the moisture conditions. These pipes are
placed in the trench when placed on sides with
proper slope and they discharge the water into the
surface drain. The pipe drains are usually laid on
both the sides of the pavement.
 If the provision of two longitudinal pipe drains on
the sides of the pavement does not prove adequate
to lower the ground water table to the desired
extent, the transverse drains are laid in addition, as
shown in fig. 8-7.
 The transverse drains are laid with suitable slope
and they discharge the water into the longitudinal
drains. They are kept inclined at an angle of about
600 and staggered in plan. They are placed at a
distance of 6 m to 20 m depending upon the
moisture conditions. '
 TYPES OF PIPES
  
 Following are the types of pipes which are generally used for the sub-surface drainage:
  
 (1) Bell and spigot pipes: These pipes are made of vitrified clay, cast-iron and plain concrete. They are laid with open
joints.
  
 (2) Perforated pipes: These pipes are made of perforated metal, concrete or vitrified clay. The joints are sealed and
the perforations normally extend over about one-third of the circumference of the pipe. The perforated area is generally
placed adjacent to the soil.
  
 (3) Porous concrete pipes: This type of pipe collects water by seepage through the porous concrete wall of the pipe.
They are laid with the sealed joints.
 (4) Skip pipes: These pipes are made of both vitrified clay and cast-iron. The skip pipe is a special type of pipe of bell
and spigot pipe with slots at the bells.
  
 FILTER MATERIALS
  
 The granular material which is used as a backfill in the trenches where the subdrains are placed is known as the filter
material.
  
 If the free water has to reach the drain quickly, the filter material must be many times more pervious than the protected
soil. However, if the filter material is too porous, the particles of soil to be drained are likely to move into the filter
material and clog it. The top of the drainage trench in which the filter material has been placed must be properly sealed
because the surface runoff generally contains some silty material and if it runs into the filter, it might clog the pours and
reduce the effectiveness of the filter.}
  
 The general studies were conducted by K. Terzaghi on behalf of the U.S. Corps of Engineers and an empirical design for
the filter material which has been substantiated by tests has been developed. The requirements for selecting the
gradation of the filter material are as follows:
  
 (i) To permit free water to reach the pipe, condition must be satisfied:
 15% size of filter material > 5
 15% size of protected soil
  
 The above ratio is known as the permeability ratio.
  
 (ii) To prevent segregation of filter material, the coefficient of uniformity obtained by the
following equation should not be greater than 20:
  
 60% size of filter material < 20
 10% size of filter material
  
 To reduce segregation, it is desirable to material in a moist state.
  
 (iii) To prevent the clogging of a perforated pipe with filter material, the following condition must
be satisfied:
  
 85% size of filter material > 1
 Diameter of perforation
  
 The meaning of the above condition is that 85 per cent by weight is finer than the specified size.
 To prevent the movement of particles from the protected soil into the filter material, the following
two conditions must be satisfied:
  
  
 15% size of filter material <5
 85% size of protected soil . . . . . . . . . ... (i)
  
  
 50% size of filter material < 25
 50% size of protected so …………..(ii)
  
 The ration of equation (i) is known as the piping ratio.