Research Methods

MBA Program

International Institute of Church

Management- Foundation for Academic
Excellence Ministry

IICM-FAEM 1
Introducing the subject:
What Research Methods
Actually Is
It is a ‘catch-all’ term that includes
research in any facet of life in society.
Wherever there are people, there is
society. Social interrelationships, opinions,
customs, habits, lifestyles, conditions of
life, communities and so many other
subjects can be the focus of study.
IICM-FAEM 2
 Being a researcher is as much about doing a practical
job as being academically competent. Identifying a
subject to research, finding and collecting information
and analysing it, presents you with a range of practical
problems that need to be solved. Over hundreds of
years, techniques, or methods, have evolved to provide
solutions to these problems, and it is these methods that
your course is about. Most courses in research methods
are a preparation for actually doing some research. See
this course as a way of gaining useful skills that you will
be able to apply when doing research, selecting
whichever methods are appropriate for the problems you
want to solve.
IICM-FAEM 3
Research :
Meaning &
Objectives
IICM-FAEM
 Objectives
It is endeavored to explain the:
• Meaning & definition of Research
• Organization & processes of scientific
research
• Objectives of research
• Characteristics of scientific research.

IICM-FAEM 55
 Overview of Research
Before elaborating the concept of
RESEARCH, I wish to present its
gist.
• Research is an active, diligent &
systematic process of inquiry, in
order to discover, interpret or revise
facts, events, behaviors, or theories,
or to make practical applications with
the help of such facts, laws or
theories.

IICM-FAEM 6 6
 Research is Teaching Yourself
• Research is undertaken within most
professions.
• Every profession entails problems. In
search of solution of those problems,
people think of probable causes of the
problems; design strategy to solve that
problems; collect information and
analyze them and take suitable actions.
• From this outset, keep in mind one
important point that conducting
research is in part about learning how
to teach yourself. 
IICM-FAEM 7 7
 What is Research?
• But our casual day-to-day
generalisation is not recognized
as scientific research because it
lacks in formality, rigorousness,
verifiability and general validity.
• Research is all about addressing an
issue or asking and answering a
question or solving a problem, but
until we have subjected our
problem to rigorous scientific
scrutiny, our 'knowledge' remains
little more than guesswork or at
best, or intuition.
IICM-FAEM 8
 What is Research?
When you say that you are
undertaking a study to find
answers to a question, you are
implying that the process:
1. is being undertaken within a
framework of a set of
philosophies ( approaches);
2. uses procedures, methods and
techniques that have been
tested for their validity and
reliability;
IICM-FAEM 9
 What is Research?
3. is designed to be unbiased and
objective .
HERE
• Philosophies means academic
discipline in which you have been
trained; and approaches e.g.
qualitative, quantitative.
• Validity means that correct
procedures have been applied to
find answers to a question.
IICM-FAEM 10 10
 What is Research?
• Reliability refers to the quality of
a measurement procedure that
provides repeatability and
accuracy.
• Unbiased and objective means
that you have taken each step in
an unbiased manner and drawn
each conclusion to the best of
your ability and without
introducing your own vested
interest.
IICM-FAEM 11
11
 The Scientific Research
• Scientific research must be
organized and undergo planning,
including performing literature
reviews of past research and
evaluating what questions need to
be answered.
• Any type of ‘real’ research, whether
scientific, economic or historical,
requires some kind of
interpretation and an opinion from
the researcher. This opinion is the
underlying principle, or question,
that establishes the nature and
type of experiment.
IICM-FAEM 12
 The Scientific Research
• The scientific definition of research
generally states that a variable must
be manipulated, although case
studies and purely observational
science do not always comply with
this.
• “A systematic investigation, including
research development, testing and
evaluation, designed to develop or
contribute to generalizable
knowledge.
• Activities which meet this definition
constitute research, whether or not
they are conducted under a research
program.
IICM-FAEM 13
Research as a Scientific Method
Scientific inquiry is the search for knowledge by using recognized methods
in data collection, analysis, & interpretation. Hence, it is:

Empirical : guided by evidences obtained from

systematic research methods.

Observations
Questions- answerable?
Hypothesis - an educated & testable guess about the answer to your

research question.
Falsifiability
Experiments- Accuracy & Reliability
Analysis
Conclusions
Replications: On d/t subjects in a d/t setting.

IICM-FAEM 14
Scientific Research Processes
Though step order may vary
depending on the subject matter and
researcher, the following steps are
usually part of most formal research:
1.Observations and Formation of topic
2.Hypothesis
3.Conceptual definitions
4.Operational definition (Research
Design)
5.Gathering of data
6.Analysis of data
7.Test, revising of hypothesis
8.Conclusion, iteration if necessary
IICM-FAEM 15
Steps of Research Process

IICM-FAEM 16
 Objectives of Research
• The purpose of research is to
(1) discover answers to questions
through the application of
scientific procedure. (2) The main
aim of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered as yet.
• Though each research study has
its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as
falling into a number of following
broad groupings:
IICM-FAEM 17
 Objectives of Research
1. Exploratory or formulative:-This type
of research investigates an area or
issue on which little previous work
has been carried out. To gain
familiarity.
2. Speculative - take account of current
situations and speculate as to their
future implications. For example, the
introduction of a specific government
policy might raise implications and
develop a programme of inquiry that
can inform future responses to these
issues.
IICM-FAEM 18
 Objectives of Research
3. Descriptive: Descriptive work aims to
gather information that illuminates
relationships, patterns and links
between variables. An example would
be an investigation of the link
between students' study skills and
course drop-out rates.
4. Explanatory: Explanatory research
aims to show why relationships,
patterns and links occur. Using the
example from 3, how could study
skills support improve student
retention? And does this depend on
other factors such as different types
of support available?
IICM-FAEM 19
 Objectives of Research
5. Predictive: The purpose of this
type of research is to develop a
model that predicts the likely course
of events given particular intervening
variables or circumstances.
6. Evaluative: To evaluate the impact
of something, for example a new
policy, event, law, treatment regime
or the introduction of a new system.

IICM-FAEM 20
 Objectives of Research
Research can be conceptualised as
exhibiting one or more of the
following four purposes:
1. Exploratory: e.g., discovering,
uncovering, exploring.
2. Descriptive: e.g., summarising,
gathering info, mapping.
3. Explanatory: e.g., testing and
understanding causal relations.
4. Predictive: e.g., predict what might
happen in future in various scenarios.
IICM-FAEM 21
Characteristics of Research
• Research is a process of collecting,
analyzing and interpreting information to
answer questions.
• But to qualify as research, the process
must have certain characteristics: it
must, as far as possible, be controlled,
rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable,
empirical and critical.
1. Controlled- The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in
relation to two variables you set up your
study in a way that minimizes the effects
of other factors affecting the relationship.

IICM-FAEM 22
Characteristics of Research
2. Rigorous- you must be scrupulous in
ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answers to questions are relevant,
appropriate and justified. Again, the
degree of rigor varies markedly between
the physical and social sciences and within
the social sciences.
3. Systematic- this implies that the
procedure adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical
sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
IICM-FAEM 23
Characteristics of Research
4. Valid and verifiable – this concept
implies that whatever you conclude
on the basis of your findings is
correct and can be verified by you
and others.
5. Empirical- this means that any
conclusion drawn are based upon
hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life
experiences or observations.
IICM-FAEM 24
Characteristics of Research
6. Critical- critical scrutiny of the
procedures used and the methods
employed is crucial to a research enquiry.
The process of investigation must be
foolproof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures used
must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
• For a process to be called research, it is
imperative that it has the above
characteristics.

IICM-FAEM 25
 What Research Takes?
A successful research requires:
• Creativity
• Open mind
• Curiosity
• Patience
• Persistence
• Positive attitude
• Discipline and focus

26
IICM-FAEM 26
 Key Terms in Research
Discuss the following key terms in research: 15’

Systematic, observable, measurable, data,

variables, qualitative, quantitative, interview,
questionnaire, focused group discussion, key
informant interview, in-depth interview,
population, sampling, reliability, validity,
generalizability, credibility, transferability,
dependability, confirmability, experimental,
ethnography, case study, exploratory,
explanatory, descriptive, historical, survey,
correlational, applied research, basic research,
action research, Longitudinal,
IICM-FAEM cross-sectional,27

research ethics, research questions and

 Types of Research Design
• Roughly speaking researches are
classified into:
• Experimental,
• Quasi-experimental, and
• Non-experimental. To determine the
classification of a particular research
design, it is helpful to ask several key
questions.

IICM-FAEM 28
• This classification system is based
primarily on the strength of the design’s
experimental control.
• First, does the design involve random assignment
to different conditions?
• If random assignment is used, it is considered to
be a randomized, or true, or experimental design.
• If random assignment is not used, then a second
question must be asked:
• Does the design use either multiple groups or
multiple waves of measurement?
• If the answer is yes, the design is considered
quasi-experimental.
• If the answer is no, the design would be
considered nonexperimental
IICM-FAEM 29
 Other Dividing Criteria

A. Use of the Study

• Basic- highly theoretical.
• Applied- very practical.
Action
Impact
Evaluation

IICM-FAEM 30
 B. Time in the Study

• Cross-sectional: A cross-sectional study is one

that produces a ‘snapshot’ of a population at a particular
point in time. The epitome of the cross-sectional study is a
national census in which a representative sample of the
population consisting of individuals of different ages,
different occupations, different educational and income
levels, and residing in different parts of the country, is
interviewed on the same day.
• Longitudinal: The term ‘longitudinal’ is used to
describe a variety
of studies that are conducted over a period of time. Often
the word ‘developmental’ is employed in connection with
longitudinal studies that deal specifically with aspects of
human growth. The longitudinal study gathers data over an31
extended period of time; IICM-FAEM
a short-term investigation may
 C. Type of Data

• Qualitative : involves data gathering

procedures that results primarily in
open-ended non-numerical data w/c is
then analyzed by non- statistically
methods.
Example: Field research
Comparative-historical
• Quantitative: involves data gathering
procedures that results primarily in
numeric data w/c is then analyzed by
statistically methods.
Example: Experiment
IICM-FAEM 32
Survey
 Data Triangulation

• The use of two or more

independent sources of data or
data collection techniques within
one study in order to help ensure
that the data are telling you
what you think that they are
telling you.
Types of Triangulation:
A/ Time Triangulation C/ Investigator
Triangulation IICM-FAEM 33
 Identification of the
Research Problem
One of the first tasks on the way to
deciding on the detailed topic of research
is:
to find a question, an unresolved controversy, a
gap in knowledge or an unrequited need within
the chosen subject.
This search requires an awareness of current
issues in the subject and an inquisitive and
questioning mind. Although you will find that the
world is teeming with questions and unresolved
problems, not every one of these is a suitable
subject for research. So what features should you
look for which could lead you to a suitable
IICM-FAEM 34
Features of a suitable research
problem
• It should be of great interest to you.
• You should be able to state the problem clearly
and concisely.
• The problem should be significant (i.e. not trivial
or a repeat of
previous work).
• It should be delineated. You will not have much
time, so
restrict the aims of the research.
• You should be able to obtain the required
information.
• You should be able toIICM-FAEM
draw conclusions related to
35
 How to focus on a research
problem
 Find an interest in a broad subject area
(problem area).
 Narrow the interest to a plausible topic.

 Question the topic from several points of

view.

 Define a rationale for your project.

IICM-FAEM 36
 Writing a Research
Proposal:
Common Components
• The research proposal must include the
following:
• A working title of the proposed project.
• A clear statement of the research problem to be examined.
• A very brief review of relevant literature to demonstrate the unique
methodological and/or theoretical contribution of the proposed
research to the discipline.
• An outline of the plan of research and methods to be used.
• An outline of chapter headings for the dissertation; and
• A preliminary bibliography of works relevant to the proposed
research work.

IICM-FAEM 37
 Reviewing Relevant
Literature
The purposes of a literature review are to:

• summarize the results of previous research to

form a
foundation on which you build your own
research,
• collect ideas on how to gather data,
• investigate methods of data analysis,
• study instrumentation which has been used,
and
• assess the success of the various research
designs of the IICM-FAEM 38
studies already undertaken
 Population

When we talk about population in research, it

does not necessarily mean a number of people.
Population is a collective term used to describe
the total quantity of things (or cases) of the type
which is the subject of your study. So a population
can consist of objects, people or even events (e.g.
schools, miners, revolutions). complete list of
cases in a population is called a sampling frame.
This list may be more or less accurate.
A sample is a number of cases selected from the
sampling frame that you want to subject to closer
study. IICM-FAEM 39
 Sampling

• is the process of selecting just a small group of people from

a large group.
• There are several things you must consider in selecting a
sample, so before discussing the different methods of data
collection, let us first deal with the issue of sampling.
• When conducting any kind of survey to collect information,
or when choosing some particular cases to study in detail,
the question inevitably arises: how representative is the
information collected of the whole population? In other
words, how similar are the characteristics of the small
group of cases that are chosen to those of all the cases in
the whole type group.
• To be able to make accurate judgments about a population
from a sample, the sample should be as representative as 40
IICM-FAEM
possible.
 Sampling Techniques

Sampling
Sampling

Probability Non-probability

Simple
Simple Stratified Quota Snowball Convenien
random
random random ce
Purposive Self-
Systematic Cluster selection

Extreme Homogeneous Typical

Multi- case case
stage Heterogeneous Critical
case
IICM-FAEM 41
 Types of Data
• Primary Data:
This entails going out and collecting information
by observing, recording and measuring the
activities and ideas of real people, or perhaps
watching animals, or inspecting objects and
experiencing events. This process of collecting
primary data is often called survey research.
• Secondary Data:
All research studies require secondary data for
the background to the study. Others rely greatly
on them for the whole project, for example when
doing a historical study (i.e. of any past events,
IICM-FAEM 42
ideas or objects, even the very recent past) or a
 Common Data Gathering Methods

 Interview,
 Questionnaire,
 participatory observation,
 Focus Group Discussion (FGD),
 Interview (KII),
 In-depth Interview,

IICM-FAEM 43
 Methods of Data Analysis

A, Qualitative Data Analysis

B, Quantitative Data Analysis

IICM-FAEM 44
 Different Research Approaches

Correlational Research:
It studies the extent to which two
variables are related to each other.
The aims the research type are to:
A. see if there is any relationship b/n
variables.
B. identify the direction of the
relation, if any.
C. Identify the magnitude of the
relation.
IICM-FAEM 45
 …types cont
Case Study
(idiographic)/Nomothetic (group)
• Research strategy that involves the
empirical investigation of a particular
contemporary phenomenon within its real-
life context, using multiple sources of
evidences.
• It is a way of capturing concrete details of a
real or fictional situation, and presenting
these details in a structured and compact
way.
• In its essence, a case study is a way of
presenting a problem in a concrete way, and
then proposing a IICM-FAEM
solution to the problem. 46
 …types cont

• Action Research:

Is about improving practice rather

than about producing knowledge. It
tends to focus on small-scale but
important issues such as the ways in
which a team implements a policy or
an individual’s professional or
managerial practice.

IICM-FAEM 47
 …types cont
• Ex Post Facto Research:
• Nonexperimental research method.
• Investigates causal r/nships.
• Examines how an identified independent
variable effects the dependent variable.
• The researcher simply looks at conditions
that have already occurred & then collects
data to investigate the r/nship of these
varying conditions to subsequent b/r.
• E.g. what is the effect of single parenting on
academic achievement?
IICM-FAEM 48
 …types cont
Participatory Research Approach
(Appraisal):

Participatory research allows community

members, or a particular group being researched,
to participate in developing research questions,
designing the methodologies to be used in the
research, and analysing the research findings.

Participatory research is a very good

methodology to raise awareness around issues
that a community or group might face, and it also
helps in developing IICM-FAEM
appropriate action plans in
49
response to the research findings.
 …types cont
Research strategy that focuses on describing and
interpreting the social world through first-hand field
study.
• The purpose is to uncover the shared cultural meanings of
the behavior, actions, events and contexts of a group or
people. Some of the requirements are:
A/ an insider’s perspective.
B/ the study is must be carried out in natural
setting.
C/ no method of data collection is ruled out,
although participant
observation in the field is usually considered
essential.
D/ the focus of the research and detailed research
questions will
emerge and evolve in the course of the
50
involvement. Theoretical
 Ethical Issues in Research
• The value of research depends as much on its
ethical veracity as on the novelty of its
discoveries. How can we believe in the results of
a research project if we doubt the honesty of the
researchers and the integrity of the research
methods used? It is easy to cheat and take short-
cuts, but is it worth it? The penalties resulting
from discovery are stiff and humiliating.

• It is also easy to follow the simple guidelines of

citation that avoid violations of intellectual
property, and which also enhance your status as
being well-read and informed about the most
important thinkers in IICM-FAEM
your subject 51
 …ethical conti.

• Privacy of possible and actual

participation,
• Voluntary nature of participation and
the right to withdraw partially or
completely from the process.
• Maintenance of the confidentiality of
data provided by individuals or
identifiable participants and their
anonymity, etc IICM-FAEM 52
 THE END!

THANK
you! !
IICM-FAEM 53