Machining Processes

Introduction
Mass Reducing Processes include all Processes in which the desired
geometry is created by removing excess material from a solid work piece.
Mechanical Mass reducing Processes generally have the
following characteristics:
1.The desired shape is obtained by removing material from a solid work piece
2.Material is removed mechanically through a controlled fracture by means of cutting,
abrasion, or shearing
3.Creation of the desired work piece shape results from relative motions between a
solid work piece and a tool
4.Tools are usually rigid, but they can also be in the form of abrasive particles or a
liquid jet stream
Types of Mechanical Mass Reducing Processes:
1- Reducing (Chips) - Chip Removal Processes - Machining
2- Separation (Shear) – Sheet Metal Working
 Mechanical Mass Reducing Processes
Chips Removal Processes - Machining Processes
Includes all mechanical mass removal processes that remove excess material
form the raw material in the form of chips. Can be classified into:
•1- Single point cutting (single cutting edge)
•2- Multipoint cutting (multi edge tools)
•3- Abrasive Machining (tiny abrasive particles to remove chips form the
work piece
Cutting is based on controlled fracture. The material is subjected to a narrow
zone of shearing, which leads to fracture
Chip formation influenced by:
-Tool Geometry
-Tool Material
-Work piece material and material properties
-Coolant / Lubrication
-Cutting Machine
-Process parameters
Common Machining Operations
The Turning Operation
Factors Influencing Machining Operations
Basic types of chips produced in cutting
(a)Continuous chip with narrow, straight, and primary shear zone;
(b)Continuous chip with secondary shear zone at the cip-tool interface;
(c)Built-up edge;
(d)Segmented or nonhomogeneous chip;
(e)Discontinuous chip..
 Chips Produced in Turning

Chips produced in turning:

(a)tightly curled chip;
(b)chip hits workpiece and breaks;
(c)continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece;
(d)chip hits tool shank and breaks.
 Built-up Edge

(b)

(c)

(a) Hardness distribution with a built-up edge in the cutting zone (material, 3115 steel). Note that
some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the bulk metal of the
wor kpiece. (b) Surface finish produced in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface
finish on 1018 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15x. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research
Associates, Inc.
 Chip Breaker

(a) Schematic illustration of the

action of a chip breaker. Note
that the chip breaker decreases
the radius of curvature of the chip
and eventually breaks it. (b) Chip
breaker clamped on the rake face
of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in
cutting tools acting as chip
breakers. Most cutting toold used
now are inserts with built-in chip
breaker features.
Cutting Tools
Materials

Ranges of mechanical properties for various groups of tool materials.

 Tool Geometry

Two categories:
• Single point tools
– Used for turning, boring, shaping, and
planing
• Multiple cutting edge tools
– Used for drilling, reaming, tapping, milling,
broaching, and sawing
 Right-hand Cutting Tool and Insert

(a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool.

(b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes.
Holding and Presenting a Single-Point Tool
(a) Solid shank tool, typical of HSS; (b) brazed cemented
carbide insert; and (c) mechanically clamped insert, used for
cemented carbides, ceramics, and other very hard tool
materials
Common Insert Shapes
(a) Round, (b) square, (c) rhombus with 80 point angles, (d)
hexagon with 80 point angles, (e) triangle, (f) rhombus with 55
point angles, (g) rhombus with 35 point angles
 Twist Drill

• Most common cutting tools for hole‑making

• Usually made of high speed steel
• Shown below is standard twist drill geometry
 Milling Cutters

• Principal types:

– Plain milling cutter

– Face milling cutter
– End milling cutter
 Plain Milling Cutter

• Tool geometry elements of

an 18‑tooth plain milling
cutter

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
 Face Milling Cutter

• Tool geometry elements of a four‑tooth face milling cutter: (a) side view and (b)
bottom view

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
 Cutting Fluids
Any liquid or gas applied directly to the machining operation to improve cutting
performance
• Two main problems addressed by cutting fluids:

1. Heat generation at shear and friction zones

2. Friction at tool‑chip and tool‑work interfaces

• Other functions and benefits:

– Wash away chips (e.g., grinding and milling)

– Reduce temperature of workpart for easier
handling
– Improve dimensional stability of workpart
 Cutting Fluid Classification
Cutting fluids can be classified according to function:
• Coolants - designed to reduce effects of heat in machining
• Lubricants - designed to reduce tool‑chip and tool‑work friction

• Water used as base in coolant‑type cutting

fluids
• Most effective at high cutting speeds where heat
Coolants generation and high temperatures are problems
• Most effective on tool materials that are most
susceptible to temperature failures (e.g., HSS)

• Usually oil‑based fluids

• Most effective at lower cutting speeds
• Also reduce temperature in the operation
Lubricants
Characteristics of Machining Processes and Typical
Dimensional Tolerances
 Range of Surface
Roughness's in
Machining
Processes
The range of surface
roughness's obtained in various
machining processes. Note the
wide range within each group,
especially in turning and boring.
 Range of
Dimensional
Tolerances in
Machining as a
Function of
Workpiece Size

Figure 23.14 Range of

dimensional tolerances obtained
in various machining processes
as a function of workpiece size.
Note that there is an order os
magnitude difference between
small and large workpieces.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Machining
Material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to
mechanically cut away material so that the desired part geometry
remains
• Most common application: metal parts
• Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in its capability to
produce a diversity of part shapes and geometric features with high
precision and accuracy

Casting can also produce a variety of

shapes, but it lacks the precision and
accuracy of machining
 Classification of Machined Parts
• Rotational - (a) cylindrical or disk‑like shape
• Nonrotational - (b) block‑like or plate‑like
 Machining Operations
and Part Geometry
Each machining operation produces a characteristic part geometry
due to two factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and workpart
• Generating – part geometry determined by feed
trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by the shape of
the cutting tool
 Generating Shape
Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning, (d) plain
milling, (e) profile milling
 Forming to Create Shape
Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c) broaching
 Forming and Generating
Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a) thread cutting on a
lathe, and (b) slot milling
 Turning

Single point cutting tool removes material from a

rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape
• Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
• Variations of turning performed on a lathe
– Facing
– Contour turning
– Chamfering
– Cutoff
– Threading
 Operations Related to Turning
• (a) Facing, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning (d) Form turning, (e) chamfering, (f) cutoff (g)
Threading, (h) boring, (i) drilling
 Lathe Cutting
Operations

Miscellaneous cutting operations

that can be performed on a lathe.
Note that all parts are circular – a
property known as axisymmetry.
The tools used, their shape, and the
processing parameters are
described throughout this chapter.
Engine Lathe
 Turning Operation

Schematic illustration of the basic turning operation, showing depth-of-cut, d; feed, f;

and spindle rotational speed, N in rev/min. Cutting speed is the surface speed of the
workpiece at the tool tip.
 Designations for a Right-Hand Cutting Tool

Designations for a right-hand cutting tool. Right-hand means the tool travels form
right to left
 Forces Acting on a Cutting Tool in Turning

Figure 23.5 Forces acting on a cuttin tool in turning, Fc is the cutting force, Ft
is the thrust of feed force (in the direction of feed), and Fr is the radial force
that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined.
 Turret Lathe

Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the

two turrets: square and hexagonal (main).
 Methods of Holding Workpiece in a Lathe
• (a) Holding the work between centers, (b) chuck, (c) collet, and (d) face plate
 Six Spindle Bar Machine

• (a) Part; (b) sequence of operations: (1) feed stock to stop,

(2) turn main diameter, (3) form second diameter and
spotface, (4) drill, (5) chamfer, and (6) cutoff
 Boring

• Difference between boring and turning:

– Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an
existing hole
– Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an
existing cylinder
• In effect, boring is internal turning operation
• Boring machines
– Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of
the axis of rotation of machine spindle
Vertical Boring Mill
 Boring and Boring Mill
(a) Schematic illustration
of a steel boring bar with a
carbide insert. Note the
passageway in the bar for
cutting fluid application.
(b) Schematic illustration
of a boring bar with
tungsten-alloy “inertia
disks” sealed in the bar to
counteract vibration and
chatter during boring.
This system is effective for
boring bar length-to-
diameter ratios of up to 6.

Schematic illustration of a vertical boring mill.

Such a machine can accommodate workpiece
sizes as large as 2.5m (98 in.) in diameter.
 Cutting
Screw
Threads

(a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads
with a single-point tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows
in the figures show the direction of the feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting
tool as time progresses. Note that in radial cutting, the tool is fed directly into the workpiece. In
flank cutting, the tool is fed inot the piece along the right face of the thread. In incremental
cutting, the tool is first fed directly into the piece at the center of the thread, then at its sides, and
finally into the root. (c) A typical coated-carbide insert in the process of cutting screw threads
on a round shaft. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide insert. Source: (c):
Courtesy of Iscar Metals Inc.
 Chasers and Die for Thread Cutting

(a) Straight chasers for cutting threads on a lathe. (b)

Circular chasers. (c) A solid threading die.
 Drilling
• Creates a round hole in a workpart
• Compare to boring which can only enlarge an existing hole
• Cutting tool called a drill or drill bit
• Machine tool: drill press
 Through Hole vs. Blind Hole

• (a) Through hole - drill exits opposite side of work and (b) blind hole – drill
does not exit opposite side
 Operations Related to Drilling
(a) Reaming, (b) tapping, (c) counterboring (d) Countersinking, (e) center drilling, (f) spot facing
 General Capabilities of Drilling

Various types of drills and drilling and reaming operations.

 Radial Drill Vertical Drill Press
Press

• Upright drill press stands on the floor

Large drill press designed for • Bench drill similar but smaller and
large parts (photo courtesy of mounted on a table or bench
Willis Machinery and Tools)
Chisel-Point
Drill and
Crankshaft
Drill

Two common types of drills: (a) Chisel-point drill. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a
bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece. Drills with four
margins (double-margin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-
breaker features also are available. (b) Crankshaft drills. These drills have good centering ability, and
because chips tend to break up easily, these drills are suitable for producing deep holes.
Three-Axis Computer Numerical-Control Drilling
Machine

A three-axis computer
numerical-control drilling
machine. The turret holds
as many as eight different
tools, such as drills, taps,
and reamers.
 Tapping

(a) Terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.

 Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool
with multiple cutting edges
• Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
• Cutting tool called a milling cutter
– Cutting edges called teeth
• Machine tool called a milling machine
• Interrupted cutting operation
• Basic milling operation creates a planar surface
– Other geometries possible
 Two Forms of Milling
• (a) Peripheral milling and (b) face milling
Milling Cutters and Milling Operations
 Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
• Peripheral milling
– Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
– Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
• Face milling
– Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
– Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of
the cutter
 Types of Peripheral Milling

• (a) Slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling, (e) straddle
milling, and (e) form milling
 Types of Face Milling

(a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, (c) end milling, and
(d) profile milling using an end mill
 Types of Face Milling

• (e) Pocket milling and (f) contour milling

 Column-and-Knee Type Milling Machines

Schematic illustration of (a) a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee type milling machine and (b)
vertical-spindle column-and-knee type milling machine
 CNC Vertical-Spindle Milling Machine

A computer numerical-control (CNC) vertical-spindle milling machine.

This machine is one of the most versatile machine tools. The original
vertical-spindle milling machine iused in job shops is still referred to as a
“Bridgeport”, after its manufacturer in Bridgeport, Connecticut.
 Five-Axis Profile Milling Machine

Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three
principal linear and two angular movements of machine components.
 Milling Operations

(a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) lab-milling
operation showing depth-of-cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth-of-cut, tc; and workpiece
speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full depth-of-cut.
 Face-Milling Operation

Figure 24.4 Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face

milling; (b) climb milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling.
The width of cut, w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius.
Face-Milling Cutter
 T-Slot Cutting and Shell Mill

(a) T-slot cutting with a milling cutter. (b) A shell mill.

 Shaping and Planing

Similar operations, both use a single point cutting tool moved linearly relative to the
workpart
 Shaping and Planing

• A straight, flat surface is created in both operations

• Interrupted cutting operation
– Subjects tool to impact loading when entering work
• Typical tooling: single point high speed steel tools
– Low cutting speeds due to start‑and‑stop motion
Planer

Shaper
 Sawing

• Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a

series of narrowly spaced teeth
• Tool called a saw blade
• Typical functions:
– Separate a workpart into two pieces
– Cut off unwanted portions of part
– Cut outline of flat part
 Circular Band Saw
Saw Power Hacksaw
Linear continuous
Rotating saw blade motion of bandsaw
provides blade, which is in the Linear reciprocating
continuous motion form of an endless motion of hacksaw blade
flexible loop with
of tool past against work
teeth on one edge
workpart
 Cutting Screw Threads

• Methods for producing external threads

– Single-point threading
– Threading die
– Thread chasing using self-opening threading dies
– Thread milling

• Methods for producing internal threads

– Tapping - using a solid tap
– Collapsible taps - cutting teeth retract for quick
removal from hole
 Cutting External Screw Threads

• (left) Single-point thread cutting and (right) threading die

Thread Milling Using a
Form-Milling Cutter
 Principal Operations for
Machining Gear Teeth
• Form milling - use of a form milling cutter
• Gear hobbing - also milling but using a special cutter
called a hob
• Gear shaping - two forms
– Single point tool to gradually shape each gear tooth
spacing
– Cutter has general shape of the gear but with cutting
teeth on one side
• Gear broaching - for internal and external gears
 Form Milling of Gear Teeth

• The form milling cutter

has teeth with the
shape of the spaces
between teeth on the
gear
• Gear blank is indexed
between each pass to
establish correct size of
the gear tooth
Grinding
Grinding Wheels

Common types of grinding

wheels made with
conventional abrasives.
Note that each wheel has a
specific grinding face;
grinding on other surfaces
is improper and unsafe.
 Various Surface-Grinding Operations

Schematic illustrations of various surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with

a horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface
grinder. (c) A vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard type.)
 Horizontal-Spindle Surface Grinder

Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.

 Cylindrical-Grinding Operations

Examples of various cylindrical-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plunge

grinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Courtesy of Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.
 Plunge Grinding on Cylindrical Grinder

Figure 26.17 Plunge grinding of a workpiece on a cylindrical

grinder with the wheel dressed to a stepped shape.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Internal Grinding Operations

Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations: (a) traverse

grinding, (b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding.