Ch2 Foundation of Individual

Behaviour

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 Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
be able to:
Contrast the two types of ability.
Define intellectual ability and demonstrate
its relevance to OB.
Identify the key biographical characteristics
and describe how they are relevant to OB.
Define learning and outline the principles of
the three major theories of learning.
Define shaping and show how it can be used
in OB.
Show how culture affects our understanding
of intellectual abilities, biographical
characteristics, and learning.
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 Introduction
Every individual behaves in a different manner,
his behaviour is individualistic in nature, and
therefore cannot be changed easily without any
strong stimuli. There exists a cause and effect
relationship in individual behaviour.
Individual behaviour is influenced by various
factors. We will study those personal factors,
which has influence on productivity, job
satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover.

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 Personal Factors
Personal factors affecting productivity, job
satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover are:
Biological and individual factors
 Physical attributes Age Gender Marital status Number of
dependants
 Ability
 Tenure/experience
Emotional Intelligence
Learned characteristics
 Personality
 Perception
 Attitude
 Value

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 Biographical Characteristics
Objective and easily obtained personal
characteristics.

Age
Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong
work ethic, and commitment to quality.
Gender
Few differences between men and women that affect job
performance.
Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself)
Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more
culture-based than race-based.

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 Other Biographical
Characteristics
Tenure
People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more
productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover,
and are more satisfied.
Religion
Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this
post-9/11 world.
Sexual Orientation
Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but
state or local laws may).
Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.
Gender Identity
Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

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 Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in
a job.

Made up of two sets of factors:

Intellectual Abilities
 The abilities needed to perform mental activities.
 General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall intelligence.
 Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for
recruitment screening.
 No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.
Physical Abilities
 The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength,
and similar characteristics.

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 Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983)
Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University, USA
• The traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q.
testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner
proposes eight different intelligences to account for a
broader range of human potential in children and
adults. These intelligences are:

1. Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")

2. Logical-mathematical intelligence
("number/reasoning smart")
3. Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
5. Musical intelligence ("music smart")
6. Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
7. Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
8. Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")
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 Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983)
(Key points)
 Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on
linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence.
 We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture.
 However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on
individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects,
musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others
who enrich the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these
gifts don’t receive much reinforcement for them in school.
 Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled "learning disabled," "ADD
(attention deficit disorder," or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of
thinking and learning aren’t addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical-
mathematical classroom.
 The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way
our schools are run.
 It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of
ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field
trips, inner reflection, and much more.

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 Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983)
(Key points, continued…)
The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong
implications for adult learning and development.
 Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make
optimal use of their most highly developed intelligences (e.g.,
the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck in a
linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much
happier in a job where they could move around, such as a
recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist).
 The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole
new way to look at their lives, examining potentials that they
left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or drama)
but now have the opportunity to develop through courses,
hobbies, or other programs of self-development
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 Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

••Number Deductive Reasoning

Numberaptitude
aptitude
••Verbal
Verbalcomprehension
comprehension
••Perceptual
Perceptualspeed
speed
••Inductive
Inductivereasoning
reasoning
••Deductive
Deductivereasoning
reasoning
••Spatial
Spatialvisualization
visualization Inductive Reasoning
• The ability to mentally
• The ability to mentally
manipulate
manipulate2-dimensional
2-dimensionaland
and
3-dimensional
3-dimensionalfigures
figures
••Memory
Memory

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(1) of or pertaining to space (2) existing or occurring in space; having extension in space.
No. Dimension of Description Job Example
intellectual
abilities
1 Number aptitude Ability to do speedy and Accountant
accurate arithmetic
2 Verbal Read write speaking ability Senior managers
Communication
3 Perceptual Speed Identify similarities and Investigators
differences quickly and
accurately
4 Inductive Logical sequence drawing Researcher
reasoning Market
5 Deductive Ability to use logic and Supervisors
reasoning assess the implications of
the argument
6 Spatial Ability to imagine Interior
Visualization decorator
7 Memory Ability to retain and recall Sales person
past experience Remembering
customer’s
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name
 Nine Basic Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
Dynamic strength
Trunk strength
Static strength
Explosive strength
Flexibility Factors
Extent flexibility
Dynamic flexibility
Other Factors
Body coordination
Balance
Stamina

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 Nine Basic Physical abilities
Strength factor
1 Dynamic Dynamic Exerting muscular strength rapidly and
repeatedly
2 Trunk Exerting muscular strength rapidly and repeatedly
using the trunk muscle
3 Static Exert force against external object
4 Explosive Exert and expend all force in one or series of
explosive acts
Flexibility factor
5 Extent Ability to bend trunk and back muscle
6 Dynamic Ability to bend trunk and back muscle rapidly and
repeatedly
Other factor
7 Body Mind and body control
coordination
8 Balance Ability to maintain equilibrium against external force
9 Stamina Ability to exert force persistently.
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 The Ability-Job Fit

Ability-Job
Employee’s Fit Job’s Ability
Abilities Requirements

As a manager how do you ensure the abilities of the

candidate fits that of job’s ability requirement?

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 Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.

Learning
Learning
••Involves
Involveschange
change
••Is
Isrelatively
relativelypermanent
permanent
••Is
Isacquired
acquiredthrough
throughexperience
experience

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 Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a
punishment.
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct
experience.

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 Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Dog Drool (1849 - 1936)
Key Concepts:
Unconditioned stimulus
 A naturally occurring phenomenon.
Unconditioned response
 The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus
 An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.
Conditioned response
 The response to the artificial stimulus.

This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not

voluntary – not the best theory for OB learning.

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 Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: behavior follows
stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

Key Concepts:
Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is learned, not
reflexive.
Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which can
increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior repetition.
Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition.
Rewards are most effective immediately after
performance.
Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be
repeated.

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 Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Bandura's Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct experience.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not
to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to
inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally
through modeling: from observing others one
forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded
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information serves as a guide for action.”
 Social-Learning Theory (Dr. Albert
Bandura )
Based on the idea that people can also learn
indirectly: by observation, reading, or just hearing about
someone else’s – a model’s – experiences.

Key Concepts:
Attentional processes
 Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn.
Retention processes
 Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned.
Motor reproduction processes
 Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing.
Reinforcement processes
 Positive incentives motivate learners.

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 Shaping: A Managerial Tool
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves
an individual closer to the desired response.
Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:
Positive reinforcement
 Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)
Negative reinforcement
 Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs
(learning)
Punishment
 Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior
(“unlearning”)
Extinction
 Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation
(“unlearning”)

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 Schedules of Reinforcement
Two Major Types:
Continuous Reinforcement
 A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is
demonstrated
Intermittent Reinforcement
 A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not every time it is
demonstrated
 Multiple frequencies.

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 Types of Intermittent Reinforcement
Ratio
Depends on the number of responses made.
Interval
Depends on the time between reinforcements.
Fixed
Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals or
after a set number of responses.
Variable
Rewards that are unpredictable or that vary
relative to the behavior.

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 Schedules of Reinforcement
(cont’d)

Fixed-ratio

E X H I B I T 2–4
E X H I B I T 2–4
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 Behavior Modification
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.

Five
FiveStep
StepProblem-Solving
Problem-SolvingModel
Model
1.1. Identify
Identifycritical
criticalbehaviors
behaviors
2.2. Develop
Developbaseline
baselineperformance
performancedata
data
3.3. Identify
Identifybehavioral
behavioralcontingencies
contingenciesororconsequences
consequencesof ofperformance
performance
4.4. Develop
Developandandapply
applyintervention
interventionstrategy
strategytotostrengthen
strengthendesirable
desirable
performance behaviors and weaken undesirable
performance behaviors and weaken undesirable ones. ones.
5.5. Evaluate
Evaluateperformance
performanceimprovement
improvement

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 OB MOD Organizational Applications
Well Pay versus Sick Pay
Reduces absenteeism by rewarding
attendance, not absence.
Employee Discipline
The use of punishment can be counter-
productive.
Developing Training Programs
OB MOD methods improve training
effectiveness.
Self-management
Reduces the need for external management
control.
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 Problems with OB Mod
OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.
OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that
involve thinking and feeling.
Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means
of shaping behavior.

Modern managers and OB theorists are using cognitive

approaches to shaping behavior.

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 Global Implications
Intellectual Abilities
Structures and measures of intelligence
generalize across cultures.
Biographical Characteristics
Not much evidence on the global relevance of
the relationships described in this chapter.
Countries do vary dramatically in their
biographical composition.
Learning
Again, not much evidence currently exists – we
cannot generalize at this point.

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 Summary and Managerial
Implications
Three Individual Variables:
Ability
Directly influences employee’s level of performance
Managers need to focus on ability in selection,
promotion, and transfer.
Fine-tune job to fit incumbent’s abilities.
Biographical Characteristics
Should not be used in management decisions:
possible source of bias.
Learning
Observable change in behavior = learning.
Reinforcement works better than punishment.

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