The heart: Anatomy, physiology, and functi

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KURMABEKOV ILIM
MEDICAL TRANSLATION
 General information

The heart is a muscular organ roughly the size of

a closed fist. It sits in the chest, slightly to the
left of center.
As the heart contracts, it pumps blood around
the body. It carries deoxygenated blood to the
lungs where it loads up with oxygen and unloads
carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism.
The heart, blood, and blood vessels combined
are referred to as the circulatory system. An
average human has around 5 liters (8 pints) of
blood, which is constantly pumped throughout
the body.
 Basic anatomy of the heart

The heart consists of four chambers:

Atria: the two upper chambers (they receive blood).

Ventricles: the two lower chambers (they discharge blood).

The left atria and left ventricle are separated from the right
atria and right ventricle by a wall of muscle called the
septum.

The wall of the heart consists of three layers of tissue:

Epicardium — protective layer mostly made of connective

tissue.
Myocardium — the muscles of the heart.
Endocardium — lines the inside of the heart and protects
the valves and chambers.

These layers are covered in a thin protective coating called the

pericardium.
 How the heart works

The heart contracts at different rates depending on

many factors. At rest, it might beat around 60 times a
minute, but it can increase to 100 beats a minute or
more. Exercise, emotions, fever, diseases, and some
medications can influence heart rate.
The left and right side of the heart work in unison. The
right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood and
sends it to the lungs; the left side of the heart receives
blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the
body.
The atria and ventricles contract and relax in turn,
producing a rhythmical heartbeat:
 How the heart works

Right side

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body

through veins called the superior and inferior vena cava (the
largest veins in the body).
The right atrium contracts and blood passes to the right
ventricle.
Once the right ventricle is full, it contracts and pumps the
blood through to the lungs via the pulmonary artery, where it
picks up oxygen and offloads carbon dioxide.

Left side

Newly oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the

pulmonary vein.
The left atrium contracts, pushing blood into the left ventricle.
Once the left ventricle is full, it contracts and pushes the blood
back out to the body via the aorta.
The valves

The heart has four valves that help ensure that blood only flows
in one direction:

Aortic valve: between the left ventricle and the aorta.

Mitral valve: between the left atrium and the left ventricle.

Pulmonary valve: between the right ventricle and the

pulmonary artery.

Tricuspid valve: between the right atrium and right ventricle.

 Blood Vessels

There are three types of blood vessels:

Arteries: carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest

of the body. Arteries are strong and stretchy, which helps
push blood through the circulatory system. Their elastic
walls help keep blood pressure consistent. Arteries branch
into smaller arterioles.

Veins: these carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart and

increase in size as they get closer to the heart. Veins have
thinner walls than arteries.

Capillaries: they connect the smallest arteries to the

smallest veins. They have very thin walls, which allow them
to exchange compounds with surrounding tissues, such as
carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, waste, and nutrients.
 Electrical system

For your heart to keep pumping regularly, it needs electrical

signals which are sent to the heart muscle telling it when to
contract and relax.

The electrical signal starts in the right atrium where your heart’s
natural pacemaker - the sino–atrial node - is situated. This signal
crosses the atria, making them contract. Blood is pumped through
the valves into the ventricles.

Where the atria meet the ventricles, there is an area of special

cells - called the atrio-ventricular node - which pass the electrical
signals throughout your heart muscle by a system of electrical
pathways, known as the conducting system.

The muscles of the ventricles then contract, and blood is pumped

through the pulmonary and aortic valves into the main arteries.

The heart’s natural ‘pacemaker’ - the sino-atrial node - produces

another electrical signal, and the cycle starts again.
 Blood pressure

This is the measurement of the pressure within the arteries. It plays a vital role in the
way your heart delivers fresh blood to all your blood vessels. For blood to travel
throughout your body quickly enough, it has to be under pressure. This is created by
the relationship between three things:

your heart’s pumping action

the size and stretchiness of your blood vessels
the thickness of the blood itself

One heartbeat is a single cycle in which your heart contracts and relaxes to pump
blood. At rest, the normal heart beats approximately 60 to 100 times every minute, and
it increases when you exercise.

To ensure an adequate blood supply around your body, the four chambers of your heart
have to pump regularly and in the right sequence.

There are two phases to your heart’s pumping cycle:

systole - this is when your heart contracts, pushing blood out of the chambers
diastole - this is the period between contractions when the muscle of your heart
(myocardium) relaxes and the chambers fill with blood
 Heart disease

There are many types of heart disease that affect

different parts of the organ and occur in different ways.

Congenital heart disease

This is a general term for some deformities of the heart
that have been present since birth. Examples include:

Septal defects: There is a hole between the two

chambers of the heart.

Obstruction defects: The flow of blood through various

chambers of the heart is partially or totally blocked.

Cyanotic heart disease: A defect in the heart causes a

shortage of oxygen around the body.
 Heart disease

Arrhythmia

Arrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat.

There are several ways in which a heartbeat can lose its regular
rhythm. These include:
Tachycardia, when the heart beats too fast.
Bradycardia, when the heart beats too slowly
premature ventricular contractions, or additional, abnormal beats
fibrillation, when the heartbeat is irregular
Arrhythmias occur when the electrical impulses in the heart that
coordinate the heartbeat do not work properly. These make the heart
beat in a way it should not, whether that be too fast, too slowly, or too
erratically.
Irregular heartbeats are common, and all people experience them.
They feel like a fluttering or a racing heart. However, when they
change too much or occur because of a damaged or weak heart, they
need to be taken more seriously and treated.
Arrhythmias can become fatal.
 Heart disease

Mitral valve prolapse

The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle does not fully close, it
bulges upwards, or back into the atrium. In most people, the condition is
not life-threatening, and no treatment is required. Some people, especially
if the condition is marked by mitral regurgitation, may require treatment.

Pulmonary stenosis

It becomes hard for the heart to pump blood from the right ventricle into
the pulmonary artery because the pulmonary valve is too tight. The right
ventricle has to work harder to overcome the obstruction. An infant with
severe stenosis can turn blue. Older children will generally have no
symptoms.

Treatment is needed if the pressure in the right ventricle is too high, and a
balloon valvuloplasty or open-heart surgery may be performed to clear an
obstruction.
 Symptoms

The symptoms of heart disease depend on which condition is affecting an individual.

However, common symptoms include chest pain, breathlessness, and heart palpitations. The chest pain common to
many types of heart disease is known as angina, or angina pectoris, and occurs when a part of the heart does not
receive enough oxygen.
Angina can be triggered by stressful events or physical exertion and normally lasts under 10 minutes.

Heart attacks can also occur as a result of different types of heart disease. The signs of a heart attack are similar to
angina except that they can occur during rest and tend to be more severe.
The symptoms of a heart attack can sometimes resemble indigestion. Heartburn and a stomach ache can occur, as
well as a heavy feeling in the chest.
Other symptoms of a heart attack include:

• pain that travels through the body, for example from the chest to the arms, neck, back, abdomen, or jaw
• lightheadedness and dizzy sensations
• profuse sweating
• nausea and vomiting
 Symptoms

The term 'congenital heart disease' covers

a range of conditions, but the general
symptoms include:

• sweating
• high levels of fatigue
• fast heartbeat and breathing
• breathlessness
• chest pain
• a blue tint to the skin
• clubbed fingernails
 Causes

There are a number of lifestyle choices that can increase the risk of heart disease.
These include:

• high blood pressure and cholesterol

• smoking
• overweight and obesity
• diabetes
• family history
• a diet of junk food
• age
• a history of preeclampsia during pregnancy
• staying in a stationary position for extended periods of time, such as sitting
at work
 Prevention

Some types of heart disease, such as those that are present from birth, cannot be prevented.

Other types, however, can be prevented by taking the following measures:

• Eat a balanced diet. Stick to low-fat, high-fiber foods and be sure to consume five
portions of fresh fruit and vegetables each day. Increase your intake of whole grains
and reduce the amount of salt and sugar in the diet. Make sure the fats in the diet are
mostly unsaturated.
• Exercise regularly. This will strengthen the heart and circulatory system, reduce
cholesterol, and maintain blood pressure.
• Maintain a healthy body weight for your height. Click hereTrusted Source to
calculate your current and target body mass index (BMI).
• If you smoke, quit. Smoking is a major risk factor for heart and cardiovascular
conditions.
• Reduce the intake of alcohol. Do not drink more than 14 units per week.
• Control conditions that affect heart health as a complication, such as high blood
pressure or diabetes.

While these steps do not completely eliminate the risk of heart disease, they can help
improve overall health and greatly reduce the chances of heart complications.