Design for X:

Chapter 7

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Embodiment Design in PDP

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 7.1 Design for X (DFX)

What is DFX?

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Design for X (DFX)
 The terminology to describe a design methodology
became known as Design for X, where X represents a
performance measure of design, as in:
 Design for Manufacture (DFM)
 Design for Assembly (DFA)
 Design for the Environment (DFE)

 The development of the DFX methodologies was accelerated

by the growing emphasis on concurrent engineering.
 Today, design improvement goals are often labeled, “Design
for X,”

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Steps of DFX Strategy
 Determine the issue (X) targeted for consideration
 Determine where to place your focus.
 Identify methods for measuring the C characteristics and
techniques to improve them.
 The DFX strategy is implemented by insisting the product
development team focus on the X and by using parametric
measurements and improvement techniques as early in the
design process as possible.

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 7.2 Design for Manufacture
(DFM)
What is DFM?

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Design For Manufacture (DFM)
 The processes and procedures that have been developed
have become known as design for manufacture or design
manufacturability.
 Associated with this is the closely related area of design
for assembly (DFA).
 The field is often simply described by the abbreviation
DFM/DFA or DFMA.
 Design for manufacture represents an awareness of the
importance of design as the time for thoughtful
consideration of all steps of production.

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DFM Guidelines
1. Minimize total number of parts:
 Eliminating parts results in great savings.
2. Standardize components:
 Costs are minimized and quality is enhanced when standard
commercially available components are used in design.
3. Use common parts across product lines:
 It is good business sense to use parts in more than one product.
4. Standardize design features:
 Standardizing on design features like drilled hole sizes, screw
thread types, and ben radii minimizes the number of tools that
must be maintain in the tool room.

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DFM Guidelines (2)
5. Aim to keep designs functional and simple:
 Achieving functionality is paramount, but don’t specify more
performance than is needed.
6. Design parts to be multifunctional:
 A good way to minimize part count is to design such that parts
can fulfill more than one function, leading to integral
architecture.
7. Design parts for ease of fabrication:
 The least costly material that satisfies the functional
requirements should be chosen.
8. Avoid excessively tight tolerances:
 Tolerances must be set with great care.
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DFM Guidelines (3)
9. Minimize secondary and finishing operations:
 Minimize secondary operation such as heat treatment,
machining, and joining and avoid finishing operations.
10. Utilize the special characteristics of processes:
 Be alert to the special design features that many processes
provide.

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Examples of Applying DFM

• This product utilizes snap fit

principle to attach the cover,
eliminating the need for screw
fasterners.
• Since the cover is molded from
plastic material and because of
the taper of the snap-fit
elements, its also illustrates
compliance.
• This illustrated a multifunctional
part. By incorporating a spring
function in the lever, the need for
a separate coil spring is
eliminated.

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 7.3 Design for Assembly (DFA)

What is DFA?

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Design For Assembly
 Once parts are manufactured, they need to be assembled
into subassemblies and products.
 The assembly process consists of two operations:
 Handling:
 Involves grasping, orienting, and positioning
 Insertion and Fastening
 There are three types of assembly:
 Manual Assembly
 Automatic Assembly
 Robotic Assembly

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DFA Guidelines (General Guidelines)
1. Minimize the total number of parts:
 A part that is not required by the design is part that does not
need to be assembled.
2. Minimize the assembly surfaces:
 Simplify the design so that fewer surfaces need to be prepared
in assembly.
3. Use subassemblies:
 Subassemblies can provide economies in assembly since there
are fewer interfaces in final assembly.
4. Mistake-proof the design and assembly:
 An important goal in design for assembly is to ensure that the
assembly process is unambiguous.
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Some Design Features to Improve
Assembly

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Essential Part
 The part must exhibit motion relative to another part that
is declared essential.
 There is a fundamental reason that the part be made from
a material different from all other parts.
 It would not be possible to assemble or disassemble the
other parts unless this part is separate that is it is an
essential connection between parts.
 Maintenance of the product may require disassembly and
replacement of a part.
 Parts used only for fastening or connecting other parts are
prime candidates for elimination.

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Design Assembly Efficiency
  

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 DFA Guidelines:
Cont:
Guidelines for Handling
5. Avoid separate fasteners or minimize fastener costs:
 Fasteners may amount to only 5% of the material cost of a
product, but he labor they require for proper handling in
assembly can reach 75% of the assembly cost.

6. Minimize handling in assembly:

 Parts should be designed to make the required position for
insertion or joining obvious and easy to achieve.

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DFA Guidelines:
Guidelines for Insertion and Fastening
7. Minimize assembly direction:
 All products should be designed so that they can be assembled
from one direction.
8. Provide unobstructed access for parts and tools:
 Not only must the part be designed to fit in its prescribed
location, but there must be an adequate assembly path for the
part to be moved to this location.
9. Maximize compliance in assembly:
 Excessive assembly force may be required when parts are not
identical or perfectly made.

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DFA Analysis:
Initial Design of the Motor-Drive Assembly

ASM Handbook, Vol. 20., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1997, p. 68.
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Results of DFA Analysis for the Motor-
Drive Assembly

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Redesign of Motor-Drive Assembly

ASM Handbook, Vol. 20., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1997, p. 68.
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DFA Analysis:
Initial Design of the Motor-Drive Assembly

ASM Handbook, Vol. 20., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1997, p. 68.
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Results of DFA Analysis for Motor-Drive
Assembly After Redesign

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 7.4 Design for Environment
(DFE)
What is DFE

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Design for Environment
 The ecosystem of planet Earth is human-dominated.
 The standard of living of humans is due to their ability to develop
technology to dominate the ecosystem.
 Significant is the human alteration of the planet that some
scientists declare present times to represent a new geological era:
the Anthropocene era:
 Known as the age of the human.
 Today’s designers and engineers are expected to move beyond
design for recyclability, beyond design for the environment to
design for sustainability.

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Material Selection Role
 Material selection has a unique role in Design for
Environment tools, practices, and methods.
 Design for Environment methods are those that bring the
consideration of the entire life cycle of the product into
the earliest stages of the design process.
 The material of which a product is made greatly
influences the impact of a product on the environment in
terms of natural resource use and impact and end-of-life
options.

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Material Life Cycle
 The life cycle of materials begins from their initial
removal out of the earth, through refining and shaping into
engineering materials until they must be retired and
disposed of in an environmentally safe way.

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Selection of Eco-Efficient Materials
 Materials selection plays a major role in each of the
phases of product life cycle:
1) Material production:
 Reduce mass of material and choose material with low eco-indicators.

2) Part manufacture:
 Select a process with low energy requirement and CO2 footprint
3) Transportation:
 Low mass reduces energy consumption

4) Service in use:
 Thermal and electrical losses are often important and are material
dependent.
5) Disposal:
 High recyclability is a strong benefit.

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Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)
 Life-cycle assessment proceeds in three stages:

1. Inventory analysis:
 The flows of energy and materials to and from the product during its
life are determined quantitatively.
2. Impact analysis:
 All potential environmental consequences of the flows catalogued in
Step 1 are considered.
3. Improvement analysis:
 Results of steps 1 and 2 are translated into specific actions that reduce
the impact of the product or the process on the environment.

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 7.5 Design for Safety

What are methods for applying design for safety?

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Design For Safety
 Safety may well be the paramount issue in product design.
 Normally we take safety for granted, but the recall of an
unsafe product can be very costly in terms of product
liability suits, replaced product, or tarnished reputation.
 The product must be safe to:
 Manufacture
 Use
 Dispose of after use.
 A safe product is one that does not cause injury or
property loss.

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Aspects To Design for Safety
1. Make the product safe, design all hazards out of the
product.
2. If it is not possible to make the product inherently safe,
then design in protective devices like guards, automatic
cutoff switches, and pressure-relief valves, to mitigate
the hazard.
3. If step 2 cannot remove all hazards, then warn the user
of the product with appropriate warnings like labels,
flashing lights, and loud sounds.
4. Provide training and protective clothing or devices to the
user or operator of the equipment.

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Fail-Safe Design
 A fail-safe design seeks to ensure that a failure will either
not affect the product or change it to a state in which no
injury or damage will occur.
 There are three variants of fail-safe design:
 Fail-passive design:
 When a failure occurs, the system is reduced to its lowest-energy state,
and the product will not operate until corrective action is taken.
 Fail-active design:
 When failure occurs, the system remains energized and in a safe
operating mode.
 Fail-operational design:
 The design is such that the device continues to provide its critical
function even though a part has failed.
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Potential Dangers
 We list here some of the general categories of safety
hazards that need to be considered in design:

 Acceleration/deceleration
 Chemical contamination
 Electrical  Leaks or spills
 Environment  Life cycle factors
 Ergonomic  Materials
 Explosions  Mechanical
 Fire  Physiological
 Human factors  Pressure/Vacuum
 Radiation
 Structural
 Temperature

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Guidelines for Design for Safety
1. Recognize and identify the actual or potential hazards,
and then design the product so they will not affect its
functioning.
2. Thoroughly test prototypes of the product to reveal any
hazards overlooked in the initial design.
3. Design the product so it is easier to use safely than to
use unsafely.
4. If field experience turns up a safety problem, determine
the root cause and redesign to eliminate the hazard.
5. Realize that humans will do foolish things, and allow for
it in your design

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Guidelines for Design for Safety (2)
6. There is a close correspondence between good
ergonomic design and a safe design.
7. Minimize the use of flammable materials, including
packaging materials.
8. Paint and other surface finishing materials should be
chosen to comply with EPA and OSHA regulations for
toxicity to the user and for safety when they are burned,
recycled, or discarded.
9. Think about the need for repair, service, or maintenance.
10. Electrical products should be properly grounded to
prevent shock.

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Warning Labels
 With rapidly escalating costs of product liability,
manufacturers have responded by plastering their products
with warning labels.
 Warnings should supplement the safety related design
features by indicating how to avoid injury or damage from
the hazards that could not be feasibly designed out of the
product without seriously compromising its performance.
 Attention is achieved by printing:
 Danger
 Warning
 Caution

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 7.6 Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis (FMEA)
What is FMEA?

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FMEA
 Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) is a team-based
methodology for identifying potential problems with new
or existing designs.

 FMEA was first used to identify and correct safety

hazards.

 FMEA identifies the mode of failure of every component

in a system and determines the effect on the system of
each potential failure.

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Factors in Developing FMEA
  Three factors are considered in developing a FMEA:
 The severity of a failure
 The probability of occurrence of the failure.
 The likelihood of detecting the failure in either design or
manufacturing, before the product is used by the customer.
 Risk Priority Number (RPN):

 Value of RPN can vary from a maximum of 1000, the

greatest risk, to a minimum of 1.

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Rating for Severity of Failure (Table 14.12)

This severity Table gives the scale for rating severity. Many
organizations require that potential failures with a 9 or 10 rating
required immediate redesign.

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Rating of Occurrence of Failure (Table 14.13)

This occurrence Table gives a scale for probability of occurrence.

The probabilities given are very approximate and depend on the
nature of the failure, the robustness of the design, and the level
of quality developed in manufacturing.
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Rating of Detection of Failure (Table 14.14)

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Results Of A FMEA Analysis

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Creating a FMEA Chart
1. The design is reviewed to determine the interrelations of
assemblies and the interrelations of the components of
each subassembly.
2. Now look more broadly, and ask what are the
consequences to the system of each failure identified in
step1.
3. For each of the functions, list the potential failure
modes.
4. For each of the failure modes identifies, describe the
consequences or effect of the failure.
5. Using the severity of failure table, enter the numerical
value.
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Creating a FMEA Chart (2)
6. Identify the possible causes of the failure mode.
7. Using the occurrence of failure table, enter a value for
the occurrence of the cause of each failure.
8. Determine how the potential failure will be detected.
9. Using Table 14.14, enter a rating that reflects the ability
to detect the cause of the failure identified in step 8.
10. Calculate the risk priority number (RPN).
11. For each potential failure, determine the corrective
action to remove a potential design, manufacturing, or
operational failure.

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Example FMEA

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