Lecture Week 8

The Routing Table: A Closer

Look
Objectives
• Describe the various route types found in
the routing table structure
• Describe the routing table lookup process.
• Describe routing behavior in routed
networks.
Introduction
• Chapter Focus
– Structure of the routing table
• Will examine the format of the routing table and learn
about level 1 and level 2 routes.
– Lookup process of the routing table
– Classless and classful routing behaviors
Routing Table Structure
• Lab Topology
• 3 router setup
–-R1 and R2 share a common 172.16.0.0/16 network with
172.16.2.0/24 subnets.
–-R2 and R3 are connected by the 192.168.1.0/24 network.
–-R3 also has a 172.16.4.0/24 subnet, which is disconnected, or
discontiguous, from the 172.16.0.0 network that R1 and R2 share.

In a later section, we will

configure the interfaces for R2
Routing Table Structure
• The figure shows routing table entries come
from the following sources
– -Directly connected networks
– -Static routes
– -Dynamic routing protocols
Routing Table Structure
• The figure shows what happens as the Serial 0/0/1 interface for R2 is
configured with the 192.168.1.1/24 address.
– R1 and R3 already have their interfaces configured with the
appropriate IP addresses and subnet masks.
–We will now configure the interfaces for R2 and use debug ip routing
to view the routing table process that is used to add these entries.
• As soon as the “no shutdown” command is issued the route is added to
routing table

debug ip routing
Routing Table Structure
• Cisco IP routing table
is a hierarchical
structure
–The reason for this is
to speed up lookup
process
–The hierarchy
includes several levels.
• level 1
• level 2
•
Routing Table Structure
Level 1 Routes
–Have a subnet mask equal to or less than the classful mask
of the network address.
–192.168.1.0/24 is a level 1 network route, because the
subnet mask is equal to the network's classful mask. /24 for
class C networks, such as the 192.168.1.0 network.
• Level 1 route can function as
–Default route
• A default route is a static route with the address
0.0.0.0/0.
–Supernet route
• A supernet route is a network address with a mask less
than the classful mask.
–Network route
• A network route is a route that has a subnet mask equal
to that of the classful mask.
• The source of the level 1 route can be a directly connected
network, static route, or a dynamic routing protocol.
Routing Table Structure
• The level 1 route 192.168.1.0/24 can be further defined as an ultimate
route.
 ultimate route includes either:
-A next-hop ip address (another path)
OR
-An exit interface
• The directly connected network 192.168.1.0/24
–It is a level 1 network route because it has a subnet mask that is the same as its
classful mask.
–This same route is also an ultimate route because it contains the exit interface Serial
0/0/1.
Parent and Child Routes
• A parent route is a level 1 route
–A parent route does not contain any
next-hop IP address or exit interface
information
• When the 172.16.3.0 subnet was
added to the routing table, another
route, 172.16.0.0, was also added.
–The first entry, 172.16.0.0/24, does
not contain any next-hop IP address
or exit interface information.
–This route is known as a level 1
parent route.
–A parent route is actually a heading
that indicates the presence of level 2
routes, also known as child routes.
Routing Table Structure
• A level 1 parent route is automatically
created any time a subnet is added to the
routing table.
–In other words, a parent route is created
whenever a route with a mask greater
than the classful mask is entered into the
routing table.
–172.16.0.0/24 is subnetted, 1 subnets

• A level 2 route is a route that is a subnet

of a classful network address.
– Child routes are level 2 routes
– Child routes are a subnet of a classful
network address
–C 172.16.3.0 is directly connected,
FastEthernet0/0
Routing Table Structure
• The parent route contains the 172.16.0.0 - The classful network
address for our subnet.
• Level 2 child routes contain 172.16.3.0, route source & the network
address of the route
–Notice that the subnet mask is not included with the subnet, the level 2
child route. The subnet mask for this child route (subnet) is the /24 mask
included in its parent route, 172.16.0.0
• Level 2 child routes are also considered ultimate routes
–Reason: they contain the next hop address &/or exit interface
 Routing Table Structure
• The figure shows the
configuration of the Serial
0/0/0 interface on R2.
–The routing table shows
two child routes for the
same 172.16.0.0/24 parent
route.
• Both 172.16.2.0 and
172.16.3.0 are members
of the same parent route,
• because they are both
members of the
172.16.0.0/16 classful
network
 Routing Table Structure
• Both child routes have the same subnet mask
-This means the parent route maintains the /24 mask

Note: If there is only a

single level 2 child route
and that route is
removed, the level 1
parent route will be
automatically deleted. A
level 1 parent route
exists only when there is
at least one level 2 child
route.

The role of the parent route will be examined when we discuss the route lookup process.
Routing Table Structure
• In classless networks, child routes do not have to share the same
subnet mask
–Whenever there are two or more child routes with different
subnet masks belonging to the same classful network, the routing
table presents a slightly different view, which states that this parent
network is variably subnetted.
Routing Table Structure
 Parent & Child Routes: Classless Networks
Routing Table Structure
 Parent & Child Routes: classful and classless Networks
classful
Network Parent Term Includes Subnet
Type route’s variably the # of mask
Classful subnetted different included
mask is masks of with each
Displayed is seen in child child route
parent routes entry
route in
routing
table
Class-
ful
No No No No classless

Class- Yes Yes Yes Yes

less
 Routing Table Lookup Process
• The Route Lookup Process
1. Examine level 1 routes
• If best match a level 1 ultimate route and
is not a parent route this route is used to
forward packet
• If the best match is a level 1 parent route,
proceed to Step 2
2. Router examines level 2 (child) routes
• If there is a match with level 2 child route
then that subnet is used to forward
packet
• If no match then proceed to Step 3
3. Router determines classful or classless
routing behavior
• If classful then packet is dropped
• If classless then router searches level one
supernet and default routes
4. If there exists a level 1 supernet or default
route match then Packet is forwarded
5. If not packet is dropped
Routing Table Lookup Process
• Longest Match: Level 1 Network Routes
–Best match is also known as the longest match
–The best match is the one that has the most number of left most bits
matching between the destination IP address and the route in the
routing table.
• For example, in the figure we have a packet destined for 172.16.0.10.
Many possible routes could match this packet. Three possible routes are
shown that do match this packet: 172.16.0.0/12, 172.16.0.0/18, and
172.16.0.0/26. Of the three routes, 172.16.0.0/26 has the longest match.
Routing Table Lookup Process
• Finding the subnet mask used
to determine the longest match
Scenario:
–PC1 pings 192.168.1.2
–Router examines level 1
route for best match
–There exist a match
between192.168.1.2 &
192.168.1.0 / 24
–Router forwards packets
out s0/0/0
 Routing Table Lookup Process
• The process of matching
–1st there must be a match made between the parent route &
destination IP
• If a match is made then an attempt at finding a match between the
destination IP and the child route is made.
• Do at least 16 of the left-most bits of the parent route match the first
16 bits of the packet's destination IP address of 192.168.1.2?
–The answer, no,
Routing Table Lookup Process
• Finding a match between packet’s destination IP address and the next route in
the routing table
–The figure shows a match between the destination IP of 192.168.1.0 and
the level one IP of 192.168.1.0 / 24 then packet forwarded out s0/0/0
–Not only does the minimum of 24 bits match, but a total of 30 bits
match, as shown in the figure.
Routing Table Lookup Process
• In the example in the figure, PC1 sends a
ping to PC2 at 172.16.3.10. What happens
when there is a match with a level 1 parent
route?
• Before level 2 child routes are examined
-There must be a match between classful level one
parent route and destination IP address.
 Routing Table Lookup Process
• After the match with parent route has been made Level 2 child routes
will be examined for a match
-Route lookup process searches for child routes with a match
with destination IP
 Routing Table Lookup Process
• How a router finds a match with one of the level 2
child routes
–First router examines parent routes for a match
–If a match exists then:
• Child routes are examined
• Child route chosen is the one with the
longest match
• First, the router examines the parent route for a
match.
• The router checks the last child route for
172.16.3.0/24 and finds a match. The first 24 bits do
match. The routing table process will use this route,
172.16.3.0/24, to forward the packet with the
destination IP address of 172.16.3.10 out the exit
interface of Serial 0/0/0.
• R 172.16.3.0 [120/1] via 172.16.2.2, 00:00:25,
Serial0/0/0
 Routing Table Lookup Process
• Example: Route
Lookup Process with
VLSM
-The use of VLSM does not
change the lookup process
-If there is a match between
destination IP address and the
level 1 parent route then
-Level 2 child routes will be
searched
Routing Behavior
• Classful & classless routing protocols
Influence how routing table is populated
• Classful & classless routing behaviors
Determines how routing table is searched after it is filled
 Routing Behavior
• Classful Routing Behavior:
no ip classless
• What happens if there is
not a match with any level
2 child routes of the
parent?
-Router must determine if
the routing behavior is
classless or classful
-If router is utilizing
classful routing behavior
then
-Lookup process is
terminated and ip classless and no ip classless
packet is dropped
 Using the ip classless command (cont.)
What is IP Classless?
• The "ip classless" command prevents the existence of a single "subnet" route from blocking access via the
default route to other subnets of the same old-style network. Default only works with single-homed ISPs.
• First, you must understand a very simple logic. Here is the logic: Me and you are on a journey. If you break
my leg, then you must carry me all the way! If you understand this logic, you will understand "IP classless".
• RIP is telling you: I am classful, if you break my class, then you have to show me every route there is, or I will
drop your packet. I will drop it even though there is a default route (0.0.0.0).
• What is classful? Classful means that a class A subnet should be shown as x.0.0.0 such as 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0
• If you show it as 10.44.0.0 255.255.0.0, you are breaking its class.
• Or, a class B subnet should be shown as x.x.0.0 255.255.0.0 such as 172.29.0.0 255.255.0.0
• If you show it as 172.29.26.0 255.255.255.0, you are breaking its class.
• Let’s assume RIP knows about 10.0.0.0 
• If you break 10.0.0.0 into three, for example to 10.1.0.0 and 10.2.0.0 and 10.3.0.0, and then give RIP a
packet with a destination of 10.4.0.1, RIP will drop it. Why? Why doesn’t RIP send the packet to the default
route?
• Because RIP told you, if you break my class, then you have to show me every damn route, otherwise I will
drop it. Here, you broke RIP's class so you must show him the way to 10.4.0.1 and every other 10.x.x.x route
in the universe. Otherwise RIP will drop the packet, even if there is a default route. RIP will not care about
your default route or last resort gateway; it will drop your packet.
• How do you ask RIP not to drop your packet and send the unknown destinations to the default route,
although you have been so mean to him and have broken its class? You tell him: please, please, ip classless!
• If no ip classless, drop the packet
If ip classless, send the packet to the default.
Routing Behavior
• ip Classless
• Beginning with IOS 11.3, “ip classless”
was configured by default
–The command “no ip classless”
means that the route lookup
process uses classful routing table
lookups by default.
• Classless routing behavior works for
-Discontiguous networks
And
-CIDR supernets
 Routing Behavior “no ip classless”
• Classful Routing Behavior – Search Process
–when classful routing behavior is in effect (no ip
classless) the process will not continue searching
level 1 routes in the routing table. If a packet
doesn't match a child route for the parent network
route, then the router drops the packet.
• R2 receives a packet destined for PC3 at 172.16.4.10.
–Even with the default route configured.
–The destination’s subnet mask is a /24 and none
of the child routes left most bits match the first 24
bits. This means packet is dropped
 Routing Behavior “no ip classless”
• Classful Routing Behavior – Search Process
• The reason why the router will not search
beyond the child routes
At the beginning of the Internet's
growth, networks were all classful
This meant an organization could
subnet a major network address and
“enlighten” all the organization’s routers
about the subnetting
Therefore, if the subnet was not in the
routing table, the subnet did not exist
and packet was dropped
• The routing table process will not use the
default route, 0.0.0.0/0, or any other route.
 Routing Behavior “no ip classless”
• The routing table process will not use the
default route, 0.0.0.0/0, or any other route.
A common error is to assume that a
default route will always be used if the
router does not have a better route.
In our example, R2's default route is
not examined nor used, although it is a
match.
 This is often a very surprising result
when a network administrator does not
understand the difference between
classful and classless routing behavior.
 Routing Behavior “ip classless”
• Classless Routing Behavior-
–ip lassless
• Step 3: If classless routing behavior in effect
then, continue searching level 1 supernet
routes in the routing table for a match,
including the default route, if there is one.
• Step 4: Match with supernet or default
Supernet routes Checked first
–If a match exists then forward packet

Default routes Checked

second
• Step 5: If there is no match or no default route
then the Packet is dropped
Routing Behavior “ip classless”
• Classless Routing Behavior – Search Process
• Router begins search process by finding a match between
destination IP and parent route
After finding the above mentioned match, then there is
a search of the child route
• There is no match with the level 2 child routes.
 Routing Behavior “ip classless”
• If no match is found in child routes of
previous slide then
–Router continues to search the routing
table for a match that may have fewer
than 16 bits in the match
• The 192.168.1.0/24 route does not have 24
left-most bits that match the destination IP
address.

C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected,

Serial0/0/1
 Routing Behavior “ip classless”
S* 0.0.0.0/0 is directly connected, Serial0/0/1
• The mask is /0, which means that
zero or no bits need to match.
• A default route will be the lowest-
bit match. In classless routing
behavior, if no other route
matches, the default route will
match.
–In this case the router will use
the default route, because it is
the best match. The packet will
be forwarded out the Serial
0/0/1 interface.
Routing Behavior

• What does R3 do with

return traffic back to PC2
at 172.16.2.10?

• In this case, R3 uses the

172.16.0.0/16 child route
and forwards the traffic
out Serial 0/0/1 back to
R2.
Routing Behavior
• Classful vs. Classless Routing Behavior
-It is recommended to use classless routing behavior
Reason: so supernet and default routes can
be used whenever needed
 POP QUIZ
• Let's look at the three routes we just installed in the routing table, and see how
they look on the router.
• router# show ip route
–....
–D 192.168.32.0/26 [90/25789217] via 10.1.1.1 ---- (192.168.32.0 to 192.168.32.63)
–R 192.168.32.0/24 [120/4] via 10.1.1.2 ---- (192.168.32.0 to 192.168.32.255)
–O 192.168.32.0/19 [110/229840] via 10.1.1.3 ---- (192.168.32.0 to 192.168.63.255)
–....
• If a packet arrives on a router interface destined for 192.168.32.1, which route
would the router choose?
• If a packet arrives on a router interface destined for 192.168.32.100, which
route would the router choose?
Answers are on the next page
• Let's look at the three routes we just installed in the routing table, and see
how they look on the router.
• router# show ip route
–....
–D 192.168.32.0/26 [90/25789217] via 10.1.1.1 ---- (192.168.32.0 to
192.168.32.63)
–R 192.168.32.0/24 [120/4] via 10.1.1.2 ---- (192.168.32.0 to
192.168.32.255)
–O 192.168.32.0/19 [110/229840] via 10.1.1.3 ---- (192.168.32.0 to
192.168.63.255)
–....
• If a packet destined to 192.168.32.1 is directed toward 10.1.1.1, because
192.168.32.1 falls within the 192.168.32.0/26 network (192.168.32.0 to
192.168.32.63). It also falls within the other two routes available, but the
192.168.32.0/26 has the longest prefix within the routing table (26 bits verses
24 or 19 bits).
• if a packet destined for 192.168.32.100 arrives on one of the router's
interfaces, it's forwarded to 10.1.1.2, because 192.168.32.100 doesn't fall
within 192.168.32.0/26 (192.168.32.0 through 192.168.32.63), but it does fall
within the 192.168.32.0/24 destination (192.168.32.0 through
192.168.32.255). Again, it also falls into the range covered by
192.168.32.0/19, but 192.168.32.0/24 has a longer prefix length
Summary
Content/structure of a routing table
• Routing table entries
-Directly connected networks
-Static route
-Dynamic routing protocols
• Routing tables are hierarchical
-Level 1 route
Have a subnet mask that is less than or equal to
classful subnet mask for the network address
-Level 2 route
These are subnets of a network address
 Summary
Routing table lookup process
• Begins with examining level 1 routes for best match with packet’s destination IP
 If the best match = an ultimate route then
– -Packet is forwarded -Else-
– -Parent route is examined
– If parent route & destination IP match then Level 2 (child)
routes are examined
–Level 2 route examination
 If a match between destination IP and child route found then Packet
forwarded -Else
 If Router is using classful routing behavior then Packet is
dropped -Else
–
 If router is using classless routing behavior then
– Router searches Level 1 supernet & default routes for a match
 If a match is found then Packet if forwarded -Else
 Packet is dropped
Summary
• Routing behaviors
-This refers to how a routing table is searched
• Classful routing behavior
-Indicated by the use of the no ip classless command
-Router will not look beyond child routes for a lesser
match
• Classless routing behavior
-Indicated by the use of the ip classless command
-Router will look beyond child routes for a lesser match
Thank You