Ceramics

Greek word Keramikos which means “Burnt Stuff”

indicating that desired properties of these materials
are normally achieved through a high temperature
treatment.
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and
nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of
the common ceramic materials include aluminum
oxide (or alumina,Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),
silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si 3N4).
The traditional ceramics are composed of clay
minerals such as porcelain, cement, and glass.
PROPERTIES
•Ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong—and
comparable to those of the metals.
• Very hard.
• Extremely brittle and are highly susceptible to
fracture.
• Insulator of heat and electricity and are more
resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers.
Typical Ceramic Materials
Types of Ceramics
 Glasses
GLASSES
• A familiar group of ceramics;
•containers, lenses, and fiberglass are typical
applications.
•They are non-crystalline silicates containing other
oxides, notably CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3, which
influence its properties.
• A typical soda–lime glass consists of approximately
74 wt% SiO2, the balance being mainly Na2O (soda)
and CaO (lime).
•They may be fabricated with ease.
The viscosity of glasses varies with temperature
according to Arrhenius Type Relationship
μ = A exp (B/T)
A and B are constants, T is temperature, μ is viscosity.
Creep rate equation is
d ε /dt = Bσn
n = 10 for glasses.
 GLASS–CERAMICS
•Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform
from a non-crystalline state to crystalline state by the
proper high-temperature heat treatment. This process
is called crystallization.
• The product is a fine-grained polycrystalline
material which is called a glass–ceramic.
•The most common uses for these materials are as
ovenware, tableware, oven windows, and cooking
range tops primarily because of their strength and
excellent resistance to thermal shock.
 CLAY PRODUCTS

One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is

clay. Inexpensive ingredient, found naturally in great
abundance and ease with which clay products may be
formed; when mixed in the proper proportions, clay
and water form a plastic mass that is very amenable
to shaping. The formed piece is dried to remove some
of the moisture, after which it is fired at an elevated
temperature to improve its mechanical strength.
Most of the clay-based products fall within two broad
classifications:
Structural clay products include building bricks, tiles,
and sewer pipes.
White ware ceramics become white after the high-
temperature. e.g. porcelain, pottery, tableware, china,
and plumbing fixtures.
 REFRACTORIES
A refractory material is one that retains its strength at
high temperatures. They are important for their
capacity to withstand high temperatures without
melting or decomposing, and the capacity to remain
unreactive and inert when exposed to severe
environments.
Able to provide thermal insulation
Typical applications include furnace linings for metal
refining, furnaces, kiln and reactor. Glass
manufacturing, metallurgical heat treatment, and
power generation.
 Performance of a refractory ceramic, to a large
degree depends on its composition.
Porosity is one micro structural variable that must be
controlled to produce a suitable refractory brick.
Strength, load-bearing capacity, and resistance to
attack by corrosive materials all increase with porosity
reduction.
Classification on basis of Composition
Fireclay Refractories
The primary ingredients for the fireclay refractories
are high-purity fireclays, alumina and silica mixtures
usually containing between 25 and 45 wt% alumina.
Fireclay bricks are used principally in furnace
construction, to confine hot atmospheres, and to
thermally insulate structural members from excessive
temperatures.
Highest temperature it can withstand is 1587 ˚C
Acid or Silica Refractories
The prime ingredient for silica refractories is silica,
sometimes termed acid refractories. These materials,
well known for their high-temperature load-bearing
capacity, are commonly used in the roofs of steel-
and glass-making furnaces; for these applications,
temperatures as high as 1650˚C may be realized. Basic
raw material is Ganister (sand stone) and Quartzite
(mineral rock)
Basic Refractories
The refractories that are rich in magnesia (MgO), are
termed basic; they may also contain calcium,
chromium, and iron compounds. Find extensive use in
some steel-making open heart furnaces.
temperatures as high as 1500- 1700˚C may be
realized. Basic raw material is Dolomite {carbonate
mineral ca Mg(Co3)2 }
Fabrication and Processing of Ceramics
One chief concern in the application of ceramic materials is
the method of fabrication.
FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF GLASSES AND GLASS–
CERAMICS
Glassy, or non-crystalline, materials do not solidify in the
same sense as do those that are crystalline. Upon cooling,
a glass becomes more and more viscous in a continuous
manner with decreasing temperature; there is no definite
temperature at which the liquid transforms to a solid as
with crystalline materials. One of the distinctions between
crystalline and non-crystalline materials lies in the
dependence of specific volume on temperature.
For crystalline materials, there is a discontinuous
decrease in volume at the melting temperature Tm
However, for glassy materials, volume decreases
continuously with temperature reduction; a slight
decrease in slope of the curve occurs at what is called
the glass transition temperature, or fictive
temperature Tg, Below this temperature, the material
is considered to be a glass; above, it is first a super
cooled liquid, and finally a liquid.
Glass Transition Temperature. It is a temperature at
which the viscosity is 1017 and viscous flow ceases.
Logarithm of viscosity versus temperature
Melting Point
It is the temperature at which the viscosity is 10 Pa-s
(100 P); the glass is fluid enough to be considered a
liquid.
Working Point
It is the temperature at which the viscosity is 103 Pa-s
( 104P); the glass is easily deformed at this viscosity.
Softening Point
It is the temperature at which the viscosity is 4*106Pa-
s (4*107 P), is the maximum temperature at which a
glass piece may be handled without causing
significant dimensional alterations.
Annealing Point
It is the temperature at which the viscosity is 1012Pa-s
(1013P); at this temperature, atomic diffusion is
sufficiently rapid that any residual stresses may be
removed within about 15 min.
Strain Point
The strain point corresponds to the temperature at
which the viscosity becomes 3 *1013 Pa-s ( 3 * 10 14P);
for temperatures below the strain point, fracture will
occur before the onset of plastic deformation. The
glass transition temperature will be above the strain
point.
 Glass Forming
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an
elevated temperature above which melting occurs. It
is essential that the glass product be homogeneous
and pore free. Homogeneity is achieved by complete
melting and mixing of the raw ingredients. Porosity
results from small gas bubbles that are produced;
these must be absorbed into the melt or otherwise
eliminated.
Four different forming methods are used to fabricate
glass products: pressing, blowing, drawing, and fiber
forming
Heat Treating Glasses
Annealing
When a ceramic material is cooled from an elevated
temperature, internal stresses, called thermal stresses,
may be introduced as a result of the difference in
cooling rate and thermal contraction between the
surface and interior regions. These thermal stresses
are important in brittle ceramics, especially glasses,
since they may weaken the material or, in extreme
cases, lead to fracture, which is termed thermal shock.
Normally, attempts are made to avoid thermal
stresses, which may be accomplished by cooling the
piece at a sufficiently slow rate.
Once such stresses have been introduced, however,
elimination, or at least a reduction in their magnitude,
is possible by an annealing heat treatment in which
the glassware is heated to the annealing point, then
slowly cooled to room temperature.
Glass Tempering
The strength of a glass piece may be enhanced by
intentionally inducing compressive residual surface
stresses. This can be accomplished by a heat
treatment procedure called thermal tempering.
Tempered glass is used for applications in which high
strength is important; these include large doors and
eyeglass lenses. Used as a safety glasses
 How Glass Tempering is done
Glass is heated to the temperature of more than
600˚C. The glass then undergoes a high-pressure
cooling procedure called "quenching." During this
process, which lasts just seconds about 3 to 10
seconds, high-pressure air blasts the surface of the
glass. Quenching cools the outer surfaces of the glass
much more quickly than the center. As the center of
the glass cools, it tries to pull back from the outer
surfaces. As a result, the center remains in tension,
and the outer surfaces go into compression, which
gives tempered glass its strength.