Chapter 2

 
RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES
 
 
PART I: CORING AND CORE ANALYSIS
 
PART II: BASIC ROCK PROPERTIES
CORING AND CORE ANALYSIS

The process of coring and the subsequent core

analysis performed on the retrieved samples is
an integral part of formation evaluation.

It provides vital information unavailable from

either log measurements or productivity tests
which are necessary in evaluating a potential
reservoir in the exploration phase or defining
reservoir properties in the exploitation phase of
discovered reserve.
 The Objectives of Coring
  Lithology identification
  Determination of reservoir rock properties
  Help in Log Interpretation
  Special Core Analysis
-Evaluating reservoir performance
-Estimating Reserves
-Feasibility studies of EOR
-Establishing log-core relationship
-Appraise formation damage/stimulation design

When shall we core ?

Early in field development
 Types of Coring
Conventional Coring.
The conventional core barrel assembly consists of a cutter head, an
outer barrel, a floating inner barrel, and a finger-type catcher,
which keeps the core in the barrel when the assembly is raised.

Advantages:
(1) Obtaining a large-diameter core for a given hole size
(2) High percentage recovery of the formation cored
(3) Adaptability to most formations
(4) No additional surface drilling equipment required.
Disadvantage:
(1) The necessity of pulling the drill pipe after each core has been cut
to recover the core.
 Types of Coring Cont,d
Diamond Coring.
In addition to improved coring, diamond bits can improve penetration
rates over conventional drilling bits in hard formations. The diamond
core barrel is similar to the barrel used in conventional coring.

Advantages:
(1) Longer bit life
(2) Possibility of cutting up to 90 feet of core at one run
(3) High percentage recovery
(4) Penetration of some hard abrasive formations more economically than
conventional coring.
Disadvantages:
(1) High initial expenses for the barrel and bit
(2) Requirement of proper operating conditions and supervision of diamond
coring.
 Types of Coring Cont,d
Wireline Coring.
In wireline coring, additional subsurface equipment includes a special core drill
collar and bit, a core barrel, and a wireline guide and overshot. The core drill
collar and bit are run on the drill pipe with a bit plug inside. When it is desired to
core the bit plug is pulled with the wireline overshot. The bore barrel with cutter
head and core catcher is dropped inside the drill pipe and automatically latches
into place in the drill collar. After the core has been cut, the barrel with core inside
is pulled with the wireline overshot.

Advantages:
(1) Consecutive cores can be cut and recovered without pulling the drill pipe
(2) Coring and drilling may be done alternately without making a trip with the
drill pipe
(3) Reduced cost of studying the lithology of the formation over long intervals.
Disadvantages:
(1) An appreciable amount of additional surface equipment
(2) Limited to relatively soft formations
(3) Cores smaller in diameter than in conventional coring
(4) Usually lower core recovery.
 Types of Coring Cont,d
Sidewall Coring.
Sidewall coring is a supplemental coring method used in zones where core
recovery by conventional methods is small or where cores were not obtained
as drilling progressed. It involves obtaining a sample from the wall of a
previously drilled open hole at chosen depths. The most widely used is a
percussion type run on a logging truck wireline, resembling a perforating gun
having hollow open-nosed bullets. The bullets are attached to the gun body by
short wire cable.
Advantages:
(1) Sampling at a depth after the hole has been drilled
(2) Lower cost and takes less time
(3) Possible aid or confirmation of information from log interpretation.

Disadvantages:
(1) Samples too small for complete laboratory analysis
(2) Samples may be badly compacted,
(3) Drilling mud filtrate may have flushed the formation samples .
 Special Coring Tools.
Special coring tools available to the industry include the
orientation coring technique. This is based on the
principle that many minerals retain slight polarity from
the earth’s magnetic field. Establishing polarity in the
core provides information on the direction and dip of the
formation cored.

This is used when it is necessary to obtain precise

geological information on structural and sedimentary dip
and/or for judging the information obtainable from
dipmeter logs in a particular geological setting.
Types and sizes of cores and test samples
 Factors Affecting Cores
The three factors
responsible for core
alteration are:
Flushing of the rock
ahead of bit by the
drilling fluid
Pressure reduction
Temperature
reduction while
bringing the core to
the surface
Typical saturation changes occurring in core from in-situ to
surface conditions.
 Retaining Core Materials
Retain for future use
  Costly to drill new well just to core
 
Coring Program Design
 
core key representative wells
 
core entire pay zone
 
core one or more wells with oil-base fluid
 
core one or more wells with care to preserve in-situ
formation wettability and water saturation
distribution
  frequency of sampling for conventional analysis is
one per foot unless for irregular lithology core
diameter of 3 or 3 ½ inches or larger
 Coring Fluids
Normally, there are no special requirements for
the fluid used for coring consolidated cores for
standard analyses.

When water sensitive clay minerals are present,

which can swell or disintegrate, inhibition with KCl
or the use of oil-base mud may be required.

When cores are cut for special core, the purpose

of the coring exercise determines which fluid to
be selected.
  Core Handling
Conventional cores
Wipe excess mud off
Put in plastic tubes or bags
Then in air tight drums for shipment

Rubber sleeve cores

For soft unconsolidated formations
Cut into convenient lengths and place rubber caps at end
Freeze

Side wall cores

Place in small glass jars for preservation
 Core Analysis
 Routine Core Analysis
Porosity
Permeability
Fluid Saturations
 

Special Core Analysis

Capillary Pressure
Resistivity
Flood Studies
Damage Studies
Pore Size Distribution
Relative Permeability
Acoustic Velocity
Petrographic Studies
Log-Core Relationships
Limitations and Corrections

  Formation damage
Saturation Changes
  Correction for compressibility effects
  Correction for mud filtrate flushing
  Correction for Shrinkage losses

Core graph is used in the Presentation of Core Analysis Results/

Interpretation
 Advances in Coring and Core Analysis
   Sponge coring
  Rotary Sidewall Coring
   Gel Coring
  Horizontal Coring
  Continuous Coring
  Uncontinuous and Friable Cores
  Oriented Cores
New technologies

Application of Core Analysis

Exploration
Exploitation
- Porosity reduction with overburden - Permeability reduction due to gas slippage
pressure. irreducible water, and overburden pressure.
Laboratory determination of fluid saturation of oil-field Cores subjected to
mud flushing and pressure depletion. (From Kennedy, Van Meter, and
Jones.33)
Changes in permeability with overburden pressure.
 Changes in Permeability With Overburden
Pressure

(a) Curve A-Colo rado; 396 millidarcys

B-Southern California Coast, 40.9
C-San Joaquin Valley Calif; 45.0
D-Arizona, 4.36; E-Arizona, 632
F-San Joaquin Valley, Calif., 40.5
G-San Joaquin Valley, Calif., 55.5
H-Southern California coast, 318.8.

(b) A-basa Tuscaloosa, Miss., 229 millidarcys, 15 per cent porosity

B-basal Tusealoosa, Miss. 163, 24
C-Southern California coast, 335, 25
D-Los Angeles basin, Calif., 110, 22 (From Fatt and Daris.30)
 ROCK PROPERTIES
• Reservoir Engineers seek to describe:
Reservoir Pore Space ()
Connections between pores (K)
Fluids in pores (saturation)
Interaction between fluids & rocks as the fluids are
produced

• The properties must be described for each lithology

(rock type) in the reservoir:
Sandstones
Limestones
Dolomites
Cherts
 Porosity, 
Porosity is a measure of the space in a rock not
occupied by the solid structure or framework of
the rock. Thus, it is a measure of how much fluid
a formation can store or hold.
Bulk Volume = Ah
Pore Volume = Ah
Oil Volume = Ah So
Water Volume = Ah  Sw

Where: A = Area
h = Thickness
 = Porosity
So, Sw - Saturations
 Porosity Cont’d
  
Porosity is a measure of pore or void spaces within
reservoir rocks.
  Mathematically:
Porosity = pore volume = bulk volume - grain volume
bulk volume bulk volume

 =Vp/Vb

= (Vb- Vm)/Vb
= 1- (Vm / Vb)

Where, Vp = pore volume

Vb = bulk voluime
Vm = matrixvolume

 It is dependent on pressure due to rock compressibility.

 
o o
 Types of Porosity
Cementing Sand or Lime
Material Grains
Absolute (Total)Porosity
Effective Porosity
Primary Porosity
Secondary Porosity
Dual Porosity Non-Effective
Porosity Effective
Porosity
 Types of Porosity Cont’d
Absolute (Total) Porosity:
Total or absolute porosity is the volume of pore space, i.e., the
space not occupied by mineral matter, expressed as fraction or
percent of bulk or over-all volume of rock, regardless of whether or
not all of the pores are interconnected.
Pore Volume
Abs
Bulk Volume

Effective Porosity:
The ratio of the volume of interconnected pore space to the total
bulk volume of the rock is termed the effective porosity.
Eff = Interconnected Pore Volume
Bulk volume
 Types of Porosity Cont’d
Primary Porosity:
The remaining void space after sedimentation of granules in the
matrix.

Secondary Porosity:
The contribution from pits. Vugs, fractures and other discontinuity in
the bulk volume of the matrix as a result of geological processes
occurring after deposition. Such processes include, cementation, re-
crystallization, solution weathering, fracturing, etc.

Dual Porosity:
This occurs in situations where the flow capacity created by secondary
porosity is much greater (at least two orders of magnitude) than flow
capacity created by primary porosity.

•Porosity is determined through routine core analysis, logs, and BHP tests .
Factors Influencing Porosity:
Porosity is influenced by many variables such
as:
Particle-size
Particle shape
Sorting
Packing
Character and amount of cementing
material
 Exercise No 6

A laboratory core sample yielded the following

data
Matrix volume= 25cm3
Bulk volume = 38.6 cm3
Calculate the porosity of the sample.
Solution To Exercise No. 6

 = 1-(Vm/Vb)
= 1-(25/38.6)
= 0.42
 Averaging  Values
• Assumes layer cake

reservoir
• Well Averages
– Height Weighted:
n n
   i hi  hi
i 1 i 1

– Area Weighted:
n n
   i Ai  Ai Iso-Porosity
Contours
i 1 i 1

– Volume weighted:
n n
   i Ai hi  Ai hi
i 1 i 1
Many contouring packages are available .
Averaging  Values cont’d
When sufficient data
become available a
frequency histogram
0.20 10

0.18 9

is constructed. 0.16 8

0.14 7

Relative Frequency
A Frequency
0.12 6

Frequency
0.10 5

Histogram provides: 0.08 4

0.06 3

Mean, Median and 0.04 2

Mode Values 0.02 1

0 0
If distribution is Multi- 0 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31

Model Porosity

The data spread.

 Exercise No. 7

• Calculate the average

porosity of the reservoir
A
for which pertinent B
C
data from log and core D OW
C
analysis on the
discovery well and from THICKNESS POROSITY
the 2-D seismic data LAYER
A
(feet)
10
(%)
25
AREA
2000
are tabulated below. B 5 20 1500
C 20 15 1000
D 10 20 500
 Solution to Exercise No. 7
Layer h  A Ah h A Ah

A 10 25 2,000 20,000 250 50,000 500,000

B 5 20 1,500 7,500 100 30,000 150,000
C 20 15 1,000 20,000 300 15,000 300,000
D 10 20 500 5,000 200 10,000 100,000
TOTAL 45 5,000 52,500 850 105,000 1,050,000
Average Porosity
1. Thickness Weighted = 850/45 = 18.9%
2. Area Weighted = 105,000/5,000 = 21.0%
3. Volume Weighted = 1,050,000/52,500 = 20.0%
 Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the
ease with which a porous
medium will transmit fluid.
It is a function of:
 grain size
 sorting
 clay inclusions
 post deposition
processes
Mathematically,
KA dP
q 
 dL

Expressed in millidarcy(md) or Darcy

1darcy = 1000md= 9.87E-9cm2 = 1.06E-11sq ft
 Types of Permeability


Absolute permeability

Effective permeability

Relative permeability
 Absolute Permeability, K
Absolute Permeability is the
measure of the ease of flow of
a fluid through the reservoir Pi
rock. A
Po

It is a property of rock which is Q

independent of the type of fluid L

(gas, water, oil) as long as the

fluid occupies 100% of the
conductive (effective ) pore
space.

It is a function of pore size

distribution only.
Absolute Permeability cont’d
K is one Darcy when
Q is 1 cc/second
 is 1 centipoise
A is 1 square cm
P/L (pressure gradient) is
Q L
1 atmosphere/cm
K 
1 Darcy = 1,000 Millidarcy
This empirical equation is valid
A P
when:
Flow is Laminar (non-
turbulent) Laminar
Flow
Fluids and Rock do not
interact
Only one fluid is present
Absolute Permeability cont’d
Klinkenberg Effect
Gases under low pressure deviate some-what
from Darcy’s law.
This defies the laminar flow theory which
assumes zero velocity at the walls of the
conduit with shear occurring in the fluid.
It follows that permeabilities for air measured in
the laboratory at an average pressure (P) are
greater than those measured using inert fluids.
Kg KL
 Absolute Permeability cont’d

 b 
Kg  K L 1  
 Pm

Kg = gas measured permeability

Kg
KL = liquid measured permeability
b = constant for gas/liquid system KL

 /r, where  = free path length 1/pm

The relationship between Kg and
r = average capillary radius KL
 Effective Permeability
Effective permeability is the permeability of one fluid in a multi-
fluid system, i.e. permeability to a fluid when its saturation is
less than 100%.
•Keff = 0 when saturation is zero
•Keff = KABS when saturation is 100%

In oil reservoir, due the presence of water saturation, oil

flows at a rate less than that which would be calculated with
Darcy’s law and an absolute permeability measured with only
one fluid present, such as the permeability reported in a routine
core analysis.
Effective permeability depends on:
pore size distribution
wettability
Effective Permeability Cont’d

Darcy’s Law is modified so that flow of one fluid

in the presence of other fluids is governed by:

K o A (Pi  Po ) K w A (Pi  Po )
Q o  Q w 
o L w L

So  Sw 1
 Difference Between
Absolute and Effective Permeability

Absolute, K Absolute, K

– Rock is 100%
saturated with the
flowing fluid.
Effective, Ko , Kw , KG
Effective, Ko -Kw - Kg
– Rock is filled with
two (oil & water) or
three ( oil, water &
gas) fluids.
Low SW, High SW,
Low KW High KW
Difference Between Absolute and
Effective Permeability Cont’d
When two or more
fluids move together in 100 100
a reservoir, they
interfere with each Permeability
other Sum

The sum of the

Ko 50 Kw
effective (md) (md)
permeabilities is
always less than the
absolute (rock)
permeability. 0
0 Swc 50 Swmax 100

Ko + Kw < K Sw, %

Kg + Ko + Kw < K
 Reservoir Permeability
Rock permeability is not equal in all
directions.
– In general . . .
Kx  Ky  Kz
Kz12

Horizontal Permeability K y1
K x1
– Permeability in the direction parallel K z1
to the bedding plane is of greatest
interest
K y2

Vertical Permeability K x2 K z2

– Permeability in the direction

perpendicular to the bedding plane
controls flow due to gravitational
forces.
Sediments shape, size, distribution,
and depositional environment control
whether K X = K Y.
•Permeability is
determined through core
analysis,Welltest analysis
(Build-up, Draw-down,
Fall-off), Correlations.
 Laboratory Measurement of
Permeability
Laboratory measurements
are routinely made at P1 P2
Upstream Downstream
 atmospheric pressure Pressure Pressure

 room temperature
 net confining pressure

A gas is used as it is Pressure

Regulator
Calibrated
Orifice
more convenient, faster, Sample
Holder
and cheaper.

Q L
K 
A P
 Laboratory Measurement of
Permeability Cont’d
KMAX Along the maximum
 For Horizontal permeability
permeability direction.
– Core plugs are cut along
the direction of the
K90 Along 90° direction
bedding plane. to KMAX.
– Two measurements are
made

 For Vertical permeability

– Core plugs are cut
perpendicular to the
bedding plane.
 Permeability Correction
From Lab to Reservoir Conditions
• K =  (overburden pressure)

Net Overburden Pressure  (Overburden Pressure) - (Res. Pressure)

1.0
Permeability: Fracture of Original
Well Cemented

.8

.6 Friable

.4 Unconsolidated

.2

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Net Overburden Pressure: PSI
Well Tests for Permeability Estimates
Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA) is a very useful technique for estimating
formation capacity - kh, md-ft.
K is the effective permeability to the fluid flowing.
Kh from well test represents average over a significant area. The estimate is
valid under reservoir conditions of pressure, temperature, and fluid
saturation.
Most common tests are:
 Pressure build-up
 Pressure Draw-down
 Pressure fall-off
Pressure-Time data is interpreted to provide additional information :
 Average Reservoir Pressure
 Reservoir Size and Shape
 Reservoir Discontinuities -- faults, pinch-outs, fractures
 Radius of Investigation
 Skin around wellbore
 Permeability from Logs
There is no wireline log available to-date that
measures permeability (It would be great if we
could do it some day).

New Logging devices (NMR, CMR) are currently

under R&D. They offer a great promise.
–Currently, they require conditioning (calibration) to
core data.

NOTE:
If ever successful, the approach would greatly reduce cost of permeability
data and make it available in much shorter time.
 Exercise No. 8
A well in the Escravos area was producing with a flow rate
of 6000bbs/day under a pressure differential of 200psi.The
well and reservoir data from the field are given as:
Wellbore radius, ft = 0. 3
Drainage radius, ft = 600
Oil viscosity, cp = 0.42
Reservoir temp = 172 oF
Oil form. vol. factor, rb/STB = 1.2
Pay thickness, ft = 50

Calculate the permeability to oil.

 
k oh  p e  p w 
q  7.08  10  3
Hint:  oB o  re 
ln 
 rw 
 Solution To Exercise No. 8

q o B o ln 
r
 er 
ko   w 
7.08  10  3  h p e  p w 

Substituting the values:

ko 
600  0.42  1.2  ln 600  0.3

7.08  10  3  20   200 

3024  7.601

70.8
 324.65 md
 CONCEPT OF FLOW RESITANCE
•  At steady state,
q = P/R
q  2 kh rP ln
re (radial flow
ln r e rw equation in Darcy
R units)
w 2 kh
 For Linear flow in series,
n
R  R
T i 1 i L/KT = L1/K1+L2/K2+L3/K3

 
For Linear flow in parallel ,
n 1
1R  KTAT = K1A1+K2A2+K3A3
T i 1R
i
 Averaging K Values –
Beds in Parallel
Averaging K values require K1 h1
understanding of K2 h2
H
sedimentological and K3 h3
depositional history of the
reservoir.

Pancake layered reservoirs,

H
composed of sand or lime
grains, are averaged on the base
of “parallel beds” model.

1 n 1 n
KT = 
AT i 1
Ki Ai For bed of equal
width KT is:
KT =
H
 Ki hi
i 1

Note: H = hi
 Averaging K Values –
Beds in Series
Average permeability of a linear, series model is the
HARMONIC MEAN of the permeability of the individual
strata.

K1 h1
K
K2 h2
H
K3 h3

H
Kh  n
hi
K
i 1 i
Kh KA
 Averaging K Values Cont’d
Limestones and dolomites
show random and rapid
lithological and textural
changes. Averaging is based
on random isotropic or
geometric basis.
Geometric averaging is useful
for values that do not have
symmetrical frequency
histograms.

K G   K1  K 2  K 3  ... K n 
1
n
 Averaging K Values Cont’d
Reservoirs showing lateral
variations in permeability
are averaged on the basis L1 L2 L3 L4

of a ‘series’ model. K1 K2 K3 K4

Depositional Reason: L

Deltaic deposit
Operational Reason:
Skin due to plugging or
stimulation
r

r  K2 K1
rw
ln e 
K  rw 
1  r   1 ln re  re
ln
K1  rw  K 2  r 
Guidelines for Permeability
Averaging
Unless geological information is decisive regarding
the depositional history, one should not presume
that a particular averaging method would apply.

If the effective permeability obtained from a well

test is available, it should be compared with the
calculated averages using the core data.
The model that provides the closest fit should be used for
calculating the average permeability value in the vicinity of
the well.
Porosity-Permeability Transforms

-K transform is used for

estimating perm for the 1000

non-cored wells. 100

Permeability (md)
-K transform provides 10

PAY/NON-PAY Cut-off
1
criteria
.1

Multiple transforms are

.01
developed for mixed 0 5 10 15
Porosity (%)
20 25

lithology reservoirs
 Exercise No. 9
For three different
reservoirs, permeability-
thickness (Kh) data from B
the cored key wells is A
plotted against the data
50
obtained from transient 0

Core Kh (md)
C
well tests on the same
key wells.

What inferences do you

draw about the 0
0 500 1000
heterogeneity of these Well Test Kh (md-ft)

reservoirs?
 Solution to Exercise No. 9
Reservoir A
Core Kh = Well Test Kh
– Homogeneous reservoir of uniform thickness

Reservoir B
Core Kh > Well Test Kh
– Core permeability is greater than formation permeability due to:
a. induced fractures during coring
b. stress sensitivity
– Formation thins away from the wellbore

Reservoir C
Core Kh < Well Test Kh
– Core permeability is damaged during drilling and coring operations
– Formations permeability is higher due to fractures and joints
– Formation thickens away from the wellbore
 Exercise No. 10
Calculate average permeability for the multi-layer reservoir,
shown below for:
1. Flow in a fully penetrating vertical well
2. Flow in a horizontal well completed along the top layer
A
B
C
D
E

Layer Permeability, md Thickness, ft

A 295 10
B 200 20
C 1 1
D 500 20
E 200 16.5
Solution to Exercise No. 10

Layer Perm, md Thickness, ft Kh, md-ft h/K ft/md

A 295 10 2,950 0.034
B 200 20 4,000 0.100
C 1 1 1 1.000
D 500 20 10,000 0.040
E 200 16.5 3,300 0.083
67.5 20,251 1.257

1. Parallel Flow Model

K  Kh  20,251  300 md
h 67.5
2. Series Flow Model
K  h  67.5  54 md
h/K 1.257
 Exercise No. 11
The two-layer linear reservoir
shown is damaged during
drilling and completion. 10’ 1000’

1 md Layer A 100 md 10’

Calculate
1. The effective permeability 10 md Layer B 1000 md 10’
of the virgin reservoir.
2. The effective permeability
of the damaged reservoir.
3. The relative contribution of
each layer.
4. What will be the effective
permeability on a pressure
build-up test?
 Solution to Exercise No. 11
1. Virgin Reservoir
– Parallel flow model is used for the reservoir.
1
K   100  10  1,000  10   550 MD
20
2. Damaged Reservoir
– Series flow model is used for each layer.
– Parallel flow model is used for the reservoir.
1,010 1,010
KA   50.5 MD KB   505 MD 1
 10   1,000   10   1,000 
  
K   50.5  10   505  10   277.75 MD
    10   1,000 
20
 1   100 

QA K A
3. 
QB K B

– For Virgin reservoir, relative flow = 100/1000 = 1/10

– For Damaged reservoir, relative flow = 50.5/505 = 1/10

4. PTA - Analysis
– Late time analysis will show average permeability of the native reservoir.
– Early time analysis will result in positive skin.
 Relative Permeability
Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the effective, K eff to
a base permeability, K.
K
Kr  Eff
KBase

Kw K K
Krw  ; Kro  o ; Krg  g
K K K

Base K could be.

* absolute K.
* effective K of one of the phases at Swir.
* dry air absolute K at atmospheric pressure.

It is s function of:
* pore size distribution
* wettability
* saturation
 Relative Permeability Cont’d
In terms of relative permeability, Darcy’s Law is
modified as:

Qo  K K ro A(Pi P o )
o L

Relative permeability is the key data for all flow

calculation in the reservoir pore space.
Hence, accuracy is of paramount importance.
 Typical Oil - Water Relative
Permeability Curves
Figure shows four important
features: 100 100
2
1. shows Swc - irreducible
water saturation (connate)
4
2. shows that Swc reduces Kro Krw
Kro
by a small amount only
3. shows Sorw - Residual Oil
Saturation due to water
displacement 0 1 3 0
0 100
Sw
4. shows that a small amount Swc SORW
of So reduces Krw Oil Oil & Water Water
significantly Flow Flow Flow
 Typical Gas - Oil Relative
Permeability Curves

Relative Permeability, Fraction of Absolute

1.0 1.0
1. Shows that a small
0.9
(<5%) amount of gas 0.8
4 2

(Equilibrium or 0.7
Critical)establishes gas 0.6
Krg
movement. 0.5
0.4 Kro
2. Kro at Sgc is significantly 0.3 Connate Water Plus
lower than KABS. 0.2
Residual Oil
Saturation Equilibrium
Gas
0.1 Saturation
3. Kro is essentially zero 0
3
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
4. Krg increases rapidly to Liquid Saturation = Sc + Swc, %
near 100% at Swc +
SORG
Drainage and Imbibition Relative
Saturation
 Source of Relative Permeability
Data
Direct Methods
Unsteady state
Steady State
Centrifuge
Indirect Methods
Published Correlations
Field Production History
Data from analogous Reservoir

General Remarks:
1. Since relative permeability is independent of pressure, laboratory tests are
conducted at low pressures.
2. Formation brine and a refined oil are used in the laboratory. Laboratory fluid
viscosity ratio is matched to fluid viscosity ratio under reservoir conditions.
 Direct Methods
1. Unsteady State
Gas or water is injected into a core
saturated with oil and connate water Pi Po
Gas and oil production rates and
pressures are recorded. Gas or
Water Oil & Water
2. Steady State
Constant  P
Fixed ratios of oil and water are flowed
through the core until saturations and
pressure gradients are stabilized. Pi Po

Ratios are altered and the above is

repeated. Oil Oil
Water Water
3. Centrifuge
Core plugs saturated with oil and
connate water are centrifuged at known
speeds.
Cum. Oil produced is recorded.
 Indirect Methods

1. Field Production History

If reliable performance data are available and fluid properties
(PVT) data has been acquired, one can back calculate the
composite field relative permeability relationship.
Need to assume the type of drive mechanism operative in the
reservoir
It is somewhat after a fact . . . late in the life of a reservoir.
2. Data from an Analogous Reservoir
The best source if one can assume similarity of depositional
setting, reservoir rock and fluid properties, and development
strategy.
– Borrow from the neighbor!
3-Phase Relative Permeability
While all three fluids (oil, water, gas) are present in
reservoir pore space, flow domains are
predominantly two phase

Water Oil Gas

W&O O&G
Flow Flow

3-phase measurements are cumbersome.

‣ Hence, numerous correlations have been proposed.

Stones’ correlation is used most often.

‣ This probability model estimates 3-phase relative
permeability from the laboratory 2-phase (oil/water and
oil/gas) data.
 Electrical Properties of Rock
Formation Resistivity Factor, F 
This is a convenient electrical measurement of rock the and
determines the nature of the pore structure of the reservoir
rocks.

It is given by Archie as the ratio of the formation resistivity,

Ro to formation water resistivity, Rw 

F = Ro/Rw 

Also a function of porosity,  and cementation factor, m 

F = -m
F = c-m 
Obtained from logs, core analysis and correlations.
Electrical Properties of Rocks Cont’d
Two Electrical Properties are
of interest to enable a
petrophysicist/log interpreter
to estimate water saturation Intercept
in the reservoir pore space. Saturation
Exponent
– Cementation Factor, m
a Rw
– Saturation Exponent, n Sw = n 
 m Rt
Preserved cores
(representative) are utilized Cementation
Factor
in laboratory measurements
of m and n values.
– The value of a is
assumed to be one.
 Mechanical Properties of Rocks
Rock Compressibility, Cf
POB
Reservoir rock is subject to
overburden pressure and pore
pressure.
POB is opposed by the rock
strength and the pore pressure,
Pr. Pr

With production, Pr declines and

 decreases.
Function of rock pore space,
Lithostatic pressure and bulk
volume.

Compressibility of rock on a -1 d Vp
pore volume basis is defined as: Cf =
Vp d P
Determination of Formation
Compressibility
A. Laboratory Measurements
1. Dried core plugs are subjected to the same effective
stress in all directions.
2. Dried core plugs are subjected to constant
overburden pressure

B. Published correlations
1. Hall’s correlation: Valid for shallow reservoir
2. Van Der Knapp correlation
 Fluid distribution in porous
media
•Depends on the system
Gas Gas Cap
Gas-Oil Contact
Closure Oil Oil Zone
•Could be oil/water, Oil-Water Contact
oil/water/gas or
Leading
gas/water Water
Spill
Point Edge
Water

Trailing Edge

•Wetting phase occupies

smallest pores
 Fluid Saturation, S
 
Measure of the amount of each fluid phase in
the pore spaces of the rock.
  Expressed as a percentage.

S = volume of particular fluid

total pore volume of rock

 
Important for:
* reserve estimation.
* well planning.

Determined from core analysis and well logs.

 Surface Tension/interfacial Tension,
3
Force at the interface of two immiscible fluids/solid.
 
Mathematically,

 = r(P1-P2)/2
 
Affected by :
* temperature.
* pressure.
* viscosity.
* dissolved gas.
* gravity.
* dissolved agent.
 Rock Wettability
Measure of the tendency for a fluid to
preferentially spread on a surface.

Depends on:
- rock type.
- type of fluid.
  - saturation .
- relative permeability
 Rock Wettability Cont’d
Wettability is the tendency of one liquid (water or oil) in
the presence of the two to preferentially spread over the
rock surfaces.
All rocks are water-wet in their natural state.
Sandstone  Silica
Limestone  Calcium Carbonate

Alteration from preferentially water-wet to preferentially

oil-wet condition is due to:
Presence of surface-active ingredients in some oils
Presence of polar compounds in some oils
Presence of asphaltenes and waxes in some oils
 Rock Wettability Cont’d

Wettability is
quantified by Contact

Angle, which is shown
in the figures for a Water - Wet
c < 90°
typical oil-water-rock
system.

Strongly Strongly 
Neutral
Water Wet Oil Wet

0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° Oil - Wet

c > 90°
Water Wet Intermediate Oil Wet
Wettability
 Rock Wettability Cont’d
Wettability depends on:
A. Rock type
B. Type of fluid Advancement of water in the
reservoir
C. Saturation Reservoir performance under
water-flood (encroachment)
D. Relative permeability

Wettability affects:
A. Initial distribution of fluids
B. Advancement of water in the reservoir
C. Reservoir performance under water-flood
(encroachment)
 Rock Wettability Cont’d
Initial Distribution of Fluids
– Rock has no affinity for gas.
• Hence, gas is always a non-
wetting fluid.
– Water or oil wets the rock as shown in
the figures.
Water
Water Wet
Grains are coated by water, and
micro-porosity is water filled.

Oil-Wet
Grains are coated by oil, and
Oil
micro-porosity is on the whole
water filled.
 Rock Wettability Cont’d
Advancement of water in
Oil Oil
an oil reservoir
Strongly Water-Wet Rock
• Water advances along the wall
of the pore spaces.
• With continual advancement,
water cusps in at the pore exit Water Water
while dragging some of the oil Oil
residing in the center of pore
space.
• The oil continuity is eventually
broken and the residual oil
remains in the center of the
pore as an isolated droplet.
Water
 Rock Wettability Cont’d
Oil
Advancement of water in an Oil

oil reservoir
Strongly Oil-Wet Rock
• Water moves preferentially
though the center of the
pores pushing oil ahead of it. Water Water
Oil
• With continual advancement,
water drags some of the oil
closer to the walls of grains.
• Water continues to de-film
the oil residing in the
proximity of pore walls.
Water
 Rock Wettability Cont’d
Reservoir performance under
water-flood (Encroachment)

Water-Oil Ratio
– Wettability will influence

Oil Recovery
reservoir performance. For
an isotropic, homogeneous
reservoir, performance is
Cumulative Injection
depicted below:
Strongly Water Wet

Water-Oil Ratio
Oil Recovery
• Large oil recovery prior to water
breakthrough
• WOR increases rapidly
• Oil rate declines rapidly
Cumulative Injection
Strongly Oil Wet
• Smaller oil recovery prior to water
breakthrough
• WOR increases gradually
• Oil rate declines gradually
 Effect of Wettability on Relative
Permeability
Relative Permeability, Fraction
1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
Oil Oil
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 Water

0.2 0.2
Water
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation, % PV

Strongly Water Wet Strongly Oil Wet

Swc, % 25 - 40 < 15
Kro @ Swc > 0.8 < 0.7
Krw @ Sorw < 0.2 > 0.5
Sw (Krw = Kro) > 50% < 50%
 EFFECTS OF WETTABILITY ON WATER
FLOODING

The following
figures show
qualitatively how
wettability affects
Recovery in water
flooding
operations.

W.G.Anderson, JPT. Dec., 1987

 CAPILLARITY
 
Measure of how fluid rises in capillary tubes.

The smaller the radius of the tubes, the higher the

wetting fluid rises and the higher the capillary
pressure.(Fig. 2.13)
 
Pc = 2cos/r
 
In oil/water system,  h

Pcow = Po- Pw
 
In oil/gas system,
Pcog = Pg -Po
Relationship Between Capillary Pressure
(Pc) and Height of Oil Column
H ( w - o )
Pc = = 0.433 (  ) H
144

Po

Pc
Height, ft
Pw

Original Water-Oil Contact

Free Water Level

Pc = 0

Pressure, PSI
 Relationship Between Capillary Pressure
and Saturation
(1) Clear, uniformly – grained, and
well sorted core, with permeability of
100 – 200 md.
  1 2 3
(2) Characteristic of limestone or
dolomite, with permeability of 15 – 25
md.
 

(3) Indicative of a gradation in size of

grains and pores and variable
permeability due to presence of clay
Entry
and matrix material. Pressure
0 Si 50 100
-A steady increase in pressure is
needed to force the oil into the Irreducibl w Water
e saturation, Sw %
rock. Water
-Residual water content is high saturation
because of the larger amounts of
water held in the finer pores.
Relationship Between Capillary Pressure
and Saturation

Small pore sizes

Non-uniform grain
sizes

Pc Pc
uniform
Large pore sizes

PT
PT (large pores)
Swir (small
Swir
0 1 pores)
Water Saturation 0 Water Saturation 1
Relationship Between Capillary Pressure
and Saturation
Capillary pressure and saturation
@ 100% Sw, Pc = gh(w-o).
Pc increases with h, and h = f(Sw)
Pc and Swir
@ Swir, wetting phase becomes discontinuous
Swir is essentially constant and independent of Pc.
 
Pc and displacement pressure Pd
Pd  Pc before non wetting phase penetrates capillary tube.
Pd depends on pore size, wettability, and interfacial
tension.(fig 2.18)
 
Averaging capillary pressure data.

  Converting capillary pressure data to a universal curve using

Leverett J function. J(Sw)
 Transition Zones
1 Initial oil-water contact
(@ Well Reservoir
Threshold Value of Pc)

Gas Transition
Gas Gas

Producing oil-water Pc

Zone
2
contact (@ Sw = 1 - Sorw) Oil

Dept
h
3
Oil

Transition Zone
Dry oil-water contact or

Oil-Water
completion oil-water 2
3
contact (@ Sw = Swc)
Water
1
Free 0 S wc Sw 100
Water
Water Level
 Exercise No. 12
• Shown is the reservoir conditions
Capillary Pressure and Water
Saturation Plot for a sandstone

80
reservoir, as calculated from the

70
laboratory test results using the

60
Porous Diaphragm method.

Pc, (psig) 
50
– Core, log and RFT data support

40
the OWC pick for the reservoir at
5,000 ft. sub-sea.

30
20
• Calculate the following:

10
1.
0
Value of Connate Water 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Saturation Sw, (%) 
2. Depth of Free Water Level in this
reservoir
3. Thickness of the Oil-Water The density of formation water and
Transition Zone oil under reservoir conditions are
65.0 and 40.0 lbs/cubic ft.
4. Maximum completion depth for
water-free oil production
Solution to Exercise No. 12
1. Swc = 25% from the plot

144  10
2. FWL = 5,000  = 5,058 ft ss
65  40

3. Top of TZ is at 55 psig above FWL

144  55
5,058  X 
65  40
 X  4,741 ft ss
Thickness of TZ  5,000  4,741  260 ft.

4. Maximum Completion Depth for dry oil is 4,741 ft ss.

END OF CHAPTER TWO