Rock Mechanics

Schlumberger Private
An Introduction to Hydraulic Fracturing
Rock mechanics

Considerations required to model the hydraulic fracturing

process.

Schlumberger Private
In-Situ stresses:

factors influencing the stress state

stress measurement technique
Stress definition

Stress =
Force Pounds
( in2 = psi ) = F (lb)2 (psi)
Area A (in )

Schlumberger Private
Force

Area
Stress
When a body is subject to a stress field, the body will deform.

change in length
Strain =

Schlumberger Private
original length

Strain= dL
L
dL
L"
 Poisson effect
F
1 = D2 - D1
D2 D1

D1

Schlumberger Private
2 = d2 - d1
d1

=- 2
d1 1
d2
Youngs Modulus

Youngs Modulus =" Stress

Strain

E = (psi)

Schlumberger Private


Stiffer

Youngs modulus and Poisson ratio

Schlumberger Private
Stress-strain relationship

rupture

yield

Schlumberger Private
B
Region from A to B all
we deal with. It describes
the Youngs Modulus.

O

Permanent
deformation
Effect of Youngs Modulus

High Youngs Modulus

Schlumberger Private
Low Youngs Modulus
In-Situ stresses

Three unequal
mutually perpendicular v
stresses:

Schlumberger Private
vertical 2
(overburden), v
maximum
horizontal stress,
1 2
least horizontal 1
stress, 2
>
>

v 1 2
In-Situ, Overburden and Horizontal Stresses

In-Situ Stress:
The collective forces acting on the rock while the rock is in place below the
earths surface.

Schlumberger Private
Overburden Stress:
Stress parallel to the wellbore axis due to the overburden load.
Overburden stress gradient (1.0 - 1.1) psi/ft.

Horizontal Stress:
Perpendicular to the overburden stress at right angles to each other.
Primarily result of overburden stress, reservoir pressure and tectonic forces
Minimum horizontal stress (min) gradient (0.3 - 0.9) psi/ft
Maximum horizontal stress (max) gradient (1.0 - 1.5) psi/ft
Failure Criteria

Maximum Tensile Strength

Schlumberger Private
Tresca

Octaedral Shear Stress

Overburden

Overburden at depth is stress

caused by the weight of the rock
above the depth

Schlumberger Private
Why, 1 to 1.1 psi/ft ?

2.4 x 8.32 x 0.052 = 1.0383 psi/ft

Stresses

Total Stress = Lithostatic Stress + Tectonic Stress

Schlumberger Private
Lithostatic Stress:
Depends on the rock Poissons ratio and reservoir pore pressure
Stress increases with increasing pore pressure and Poissons ratio
Tectonic Stress:
Can be a significant component (depends on local geologic activity)
Could increase or decrease stresses
Strongly depends on rock Youngs modulus
Pore pressure and stresses

(Terzaghi)

Schlumberger Private
(Handin)

poroelastic constant, accounts for cementation between grains

preventing full magnitude of pore pressure
Effective stress
The portion of the total applied stress carried by the rock matrix or proppant

Force Grains

Schlumberger Private
Pores = - P
= Effective stress
= Total stress
P = Fluid pore
pressure
= poroelastic constant
0.70
Force

any change in pore pressure is accompanied by a

variation in the pore volume.
Permeability reduction

Schlumberger Private
0.1

0.01

0
6000
12000

Stress (psi)
Lithostatic stress determination

= lithostatic horizontal stress

Schlumberger Private
lit
= Poissons ratio
ob = Overburden pressure
= Poroelastic constant
NOTE: The two horizontal stresses are assumed to be equal
Why different stresses exist downhole?

Overburden An Example

Schlumberger Private
Shale
Poissons Ratio = 0.35

Sandstone
Poissons Ratio = 0.20
Lithostatic stress calculation

Assume
Overburden
Depth = 5000 ft;
Pore pressure = 0.4 psi/ft x 5000
= 2000 psi

Schlumberger Private
Shale
Poissons Ratio = 0.35 Overburden = 1.05 x 5000
= 5250 psi
= 1.0

Sandstone
Poissons Ratio = 0.20
Shale: L,min = 3750 psi
Sandstone: L,min = 2810 psi
Fracture toughness

Toughness is a measure of the ease with which a

fracture can propagate.

Schlumberger Private
K = Fracture toughness (psi in1/2)
Typical mechanical properties

Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Formation Type Porosity E V Toughness
(%) (psi) psi (in.) 1/2
Sandstone Tight 5 to 15 4 to 8.0 0.18 to 0.25 1000

Schlumberger Private
Sandstone Medium Soft 15 to 25 1.0 to 4.0 0.2 to 0.25 1000 to 2000

Sandstone Soft 25 to 30 0.1 to 0.5 0.25 to 0.30 2000 to 4000

Sandstone Very Soft > 30 0.01 to 0.2 0.3 to 0.35 3000 to 6000

Shale Soft to Tight 7 to 12 2.0 to 5.0 0.2 to 0.4 1000 to 2000

Induced stress

In-situ stress field can be changed locally

Borehole

Schlumberger Private
Induced Stress

In-situ Stress
Induced stress

Schlumberger Private
Native Stress Induced Stress
Stress concentration

hmin

Schlumberger Private
1=3hmax - hmin

hmax

2=3hmin - hmax

hmax hmin 1 2

8000 7000 17000 13000

Stress changes due to fracturing

Increase in minimum stress because of poroelastic effect:

leak-off induces pore pressure increase around the fracture

Schlumberger Private
poroelastic effect disappears when injection is stopped

Stress increase due to the opening of the fracture:

typical in short tip-screen-out fractures

effect remains when fracture is held open (closure on proppant)
it has been proposed that the effect strengthens weak formations,
decreasing the risk of sanding
 Schlumberger Private
In-situ stress determination
 Schlumberger Private
Microfracturing
 Schlumberger Private
Microfracturing
Pump-in / Flow back test

Schlumberger Private
Logging techniques

Use sonic data to provide stress information

Use built in correlations obtained from field tests

Schlumberger Private
These logs need to be calibrated with values from
other methods
Elastic properties

Dynamic Values

Schlumberger Private
values obtained with dynamic techniques are normally higher than those in static
Elastic properties

Static Values

Schlumberger Private
C = 0.35
C = 0.35 > 0.35
How good is a stress log ?

Sonic di-polar sonic in open

hole is accurate.

Schlumberger Private
Sonic di-polar in cased hole
is qualitatively accurate.

Values derived from the log

should be corrected with
measured values from
laboratory (core sample).
Minimum horizontal stress orientation

Schlumberger Private
Minimum horizontal stress orientation

Schlumberger Private
Fracture orientation

The fracture will extend perpendicular to the axis of the least

stress.

Schlumberger Private
Overburden Pressure

Favored Fracture Direction

Least Principal Stress

(i.e. Vertical Fracture)

Vertical or horizontal fractures

Schlumberger Private
Vertical fracture plane is perpendicular Horizontal fracture with a pancake like
to earths surface due to overburden geometry. Usually associated with
stress being too great to overcome shallow wells of less than 3,000 ft. depth

Rule-of-thumb :
Frac Gradient < 0.8 psi / ft --------> Vertical Fracture
Frac Gradient > 1.0 psi / ft --------> Horizontal Fracture
Fracture azimuth

Necessary for efficient reservoir drainage

Schlumberger Private
Good drainage Poor drainage