University of salahaddin

College of engineering
Civil department

Piles in construction

Name : stanick Jamel slewa

Group : 2nd c
contents
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Testing
• Methods of pile driving
• Displacement piles and non displacement piles
• References
Abstract

Estimation of the geotechnical engineering and geological conditions of the ground is an

essential aspect in design of pile foundations and the calculation of pile capacity and
settlement. The results of some of static and dynamic pile integrity tests on problematical
soils along the shores of the Ishim River in Astana and in the western part of Kazakhstan
around the Caspian Sea will be presented. This data has been used to determine the
length of H-piles for the new USA Embassy in Astana which is founded in soft soils. The
paper will also present the geotechnical considerations for high rise buildings and
buildings with unique architecture in difficult ground conditions in Astana (New Capital)
and West Kazakhstan (the coast of Caspian Sea). The method of calculation of pile capacity
and settlement based on static and dynamic pile integrity tests will be presented. It is
found that geozoning is very important in design, construction and testing of piles in
problematic ground in Kazakhstan especially in the new capital city of Astana. The paper
presents the geotechnical challenges in the construction of piling foundations in
problematical soils for Mega highway projects in Western Kazakhstan. Many factors, such
as ground freezing, collapsing of soils, seismic zoning, are needed to be considered for
design, testing and construction of the pile foundation.
introduction
Bored piles are widely used in foundation engineering. The prediction of the
behaviour of bored piles requires both engineering knowledge and practical
experience. The behaviour of foundation piles is affected by several factors, which
are difficult to quantify, such as the installation methods, rate of installation and
workmanship. The bearing capacity of piles depends not only on the physical
properties of piles and soil conditions but also on the method of construction. Better
knowledge of the soil behaviour and higher construction quality give rise to better
design and increase the higher vertical and horizontal bearing capacity of piles. This
in turn implies an increased demand on the material quality and workmanship. The
quality control of bored piles has increasingly gained importance.
Testing
Piling Contractors offers a range of in house pile testing services as an integral part of our
Quality Control procedures. Both integrity testing and load testing are carried out in
accordance with the relevant Australian Standards.
Some testing requirements concern quality of the workmanship and materials, and is
generally based on verifying the integrity of the pile. Other testing is undertaken to confirm
the design, and is based on measuring the performance of the pile in response to an
applied load and comparing this with the design requirements and any prediction.
Australian Standard AS2159:2009 has a strong emphasis on pile testing specifying an
intrinsic test factor and a testing benefit factor, both of which are applicable when
appropriate testing is carried out.
Pile testing is conducted using state of the art equipment and the latest technology and
computer software in processing and analysis of the results, all operated by well-trained
experienced personnel.
Integrity testing:
Integrity testing is carried out using the PIT-Collector system manufactured by Pile Dynamics Inc of the
USA. This test, variously called the sonic integrity test or the low strain test is used for checking the
integrity and continuity of an installed pile foundation. It can be applied to pre-formed or cast-in-situ piles,
and involves striking the top of the pile cleanly with a special hammer, and monitoring the response of the
pile with an accelerometer held against the pile top surface. The top of the pile needs to be prepared,
however each test, comprising the averaging of a number of blows, takes only a few minutes and many
piles can be tested in a single site visit. The response of the pile to the stress wave which travels down to
the toe and is reflected back up again, is a function of the pile impedance, and this is a function of the pile
modulus and second moment of area. Weak or honeycombed concrete, which affect modulus, or bulging
and necking, which affect area, as well as cracks which provide a surface from which the stress wave can
reflect, are all shown up in the trace of the pile response. With skill, experience and judgement, it can be
shown that no defective concrete exists within the important load carrying parts of the pile.
Another type of integrity test commonly used for cast-in-situ piles is sonic logging, a procedure which
involves casting three or four tubes (dependent on pile diameter), into the pile with the reinforcement
cage, Once the concrete is set a pair of transducers, comprising an ultrasonic emitter and receiver, are
lowered down a pair of tubes and then raised slowly to the surface. The travel time for the ultrasonic
signal between the emitter and the received is a function of the separation of the tubes, which should be
roughly parallel, and the modulus of the concrete between. The output signal therefore shows the quality
of the concrete “between” the tubes, and the signal is independent of depth. Piling Contractors can
arrange for this testing to be carried out if required.
Static Load Testing

Static load testing involves the direct measurement of pile

head displacement in response to a physically applied test
load. Load is normally applied via a hydraulic jack acting
against a reaction system, and this can be provided by
anchor piles, ground or rock anchors or by dead weight
known as kentledge. At each step the applied load is
measured using a load cell, or sometimes with a calibrated
gauge in the hydraulic system. Pile displacement is
measured relative to a fixed reference beam, usually with
dial gauges or linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDTs), and checked using precision surveying equipment.

Static load testing is carried out in-house by Piling

Contractors. Load tests can be carried out to assess the load
displacement performance of a pile in both vertical (axial
compression/tension load test) and horizontal directions
(lateral load test).
Bi-directional Load Testing
An alternative method of static load which was first introduced to the USA about 20 years ago is
the Osterberg Cell. This involves placing sacrificial calibrated hydraulic jacks within the pile,
either one near the base, or one near the base and another higher up. The cells are fixed to the
reinforcement cage and placed prior to concreting, as well as other instrumentation such as
extensometers and strain gauges. At the time of testing, the jacks are expanded, forcing the
upper part of the pile out of the ground against the reaction of the lower part. Analysis of the
test data allows a lower bound estimate of pile capacity, and some useful performance
measurements.

This type of test does not require the external reaction system, and so can have significant cost
advantages, especially when working over water. Piling Contractors has experience of this type of
test, having carried out four on the Gateway Upgrade project, two on preliminary piles and two
on working piles.
Dynamic Load Testing
Another alternative to static load testing is the use of Dynamic Load Testing. This was
developed by Pile Dynamics Inc of the USA, who manufacture the PDI-PAK system used
by Piling Contractors. The system comprises two to four strain gauges & acceleration
transducers, a portable field computer with signal processing electronics and a signal
conditioning system, together with software for monitoring and reporting. Analysis is
carried out using the signal matching computer program CAPWAP.
Dynamic load testing was introduced for driven piling, where it is carried out either
using the pile driving impact hammer on piles made of concrete (prestressed or
precast), steel or timber (or on composite piles). It has been developed to apply to cast-
in-situ piles, where a separate drop weight is required. Piling Contractors owns an 11
tonne weight fitted inside a custom made test frame which is equipped with an
hydraulic catching mechanism to hold and control the release of the weight.
In both types of test, we have the capability for real-time connection of the PDI-PAK on
site with an office based computer via a mobile phone and the internet. This allows
specialist expertise to control the test while trained technicians operate the equipment
even where the site is in a remote area.
Methods of pile driving
he process of forcing pile into the ground without any excavation is known as pile
driving. The equipment required for pile driving can be classified as follows:

1. Pile frames,

2. Pile hammers,

3. Leads,

4. Winches,

5. Miscellaneous
Equipment.
Methods of pile driving can be categorised as follows:

• Dropping weight
• Explosion
• Vibration
• Jacking (restricted to micro-piling)
• Jetting
1.Dropp hammer:

It is made from solid mass of C.I which is lifted and allowed to fall under
gravity on the pile head. It is provided with two lugs so that it may slide
on the leads. It also consists of a hook to tie the rope to it. Drop
hammer weighs 1 ton to 4 ton and has a free fall varying from about
1.5 to 6 m. It can deliver 4 to 8 blows per minute. The energy imparted
to the pile head by the hammer is dependent on fall and weight of the
hammer. Heavy hammer with short fall should be preferred than using
light hammer and large fall.
2. STEAM HAMMER:
A. SINGLE-ACTING STEAM HAMMER:
In this method, the hammer is lifted either with compressed air or steam but allowed to drop on pile head under
gravity only. Its weight is about 2 ton and fall or drops from 1 m. It can deliver about 60 blows per minute. It can be
open type or closed type. Single-acting steam hammer can be used for driving piles under water.

B. DOUBLE-ACTING HAMMER:
In this method, the hammer is lifted by steam or compressed air like single-acting hammer but during fall steam or
compressed air also aids the fall of the hammer in addition to the gravity effect. If compressed air is used for lifting
and dropping the hammer on the pile head, it is known as pneumatic hammer. Double acting hammer weighs
about 1/2 ton but because of added effect of steam pressure, it develops an effect of about 3 ton on the pile head.
It can deliver 100 to 300 blows per minute. This hammer is generally fully enclosed in a steel case and hence
equally useful for driving piles under water. In this hammer, energy per blow and number of blows per minute can
be regulated by adjusting steam pressure.

C. DIFFERENTIAL ACTING STEAM HAMMER:

It is a modified form of double-acting steam hammer. Advantages of both single-acting and double acting steam
hammers are embodied in it. It is claimed that this hammer consumes the least power in penetration of a pile as
compared to single or double-acting hammers. It may be open type or closed type and hence can be used for
driving piles under water also.
3. WATER JET:
In this method, piles are cast with jetting pipe in them. Water under a pressure of 7 to
17.5 kg/cm2 is forced through this jetting pipe at the rate of 20 to 40 liters per second
near the bottom of the pile. This water dislodged the soil at the bottom of the pile and
pile can sink under its own weight or with a very light blow of the hammer. Some water
from the bottom rises along the sides of the pile and helps in reducing the friction
between the pile and surrounding soil. The water jet is stopped about 1 m to 2 m from
the depth to be reached by the pile and this length is driven entirely with hammers.

4. BY BORING:
Piles may be driven by first boring a hole with the help of auger, rotary well drills or by
any other method. Auger is used when the soil is soft and depth is very small. In case of
rock and hard soils boring may be done by well drill or other methods. A precast pile is
lastly put into the bored hole.
Essentially there are two types of pile:

Replacement piles: These are piles which are put into holes dug or
augured out of the earth. The concrete, or steel, simply replaces the
earth, clay etc…. which has been excavated.
Displacement piles: These are precast or pre-formed piles which are
driven into the ground by a huge piling hammer. These displace the
earth they are driven through.
Displacement piles and non displacement piles

Displacement piles cause the soil to be displaced radially as well as

vertically as the pile shaft is driven or jacked into the ground. With non-
displacement piles (or replacement piles), soil is removed and the
resulting hole filled with concrete or a precast concrete pile is dropped
into the hole and grouted in.
References
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877705816341005#bibl0005
http://www.dailycivil.com/pile-driving-methods/
http://www.pilingcontractors.com.au/design-verification/testing
http://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/piling.htm