Energy Consumption & Power

Calculation
 Volt - unit of electrical potential or motive force -
potential is required to send one ampere of current
through one ohm of resistance.

 Ohm - unit of resistance - one ohm is the

resistance offered to the passage of one ampere
when impelled by one volt.

 Watt - unit of electrical energy or power - one watt

is the product of one ampere and one volt - one
ampere of current flowing under the force of one
volt gives one watt of energy.

 Power Factor - ratio of watts to volt amperes

 Ampere - units of current - one ampere is the
current which one volt can send through a
resistance of one ohm.

 Volt Ampere - product of volts and amperes as

shown by a voltmeter and ammeter - in direct
current systems the volt ampere is the same as
watts or the energy delivered - in alternating
current systems - the volts and amperes may or
may not be 100% synchronous - when
synchronous the volt amperes equals the watts on
a wattmeter - when not synchronous volt amperes
exceed watts - reactive power

 Kilovolt Ampere - one kilovolt ampere - KVA - is

equal to 1,000 volt amperes
 Single-phase Power
 In electrical engineering, single-phase electric
power refers to the distribution of alternating current
electric power using a system in which all the voltages
of the supply vary in unison.

 Single-phase distribution is used when loads are

mostly lighting and heating, with few large electric
motors.

 A single-phase supply connected to an alternating

current electric motor does not produce a revolving
magnetic field;
– single-phase motors need additional circuits for starting,
and such motors are uncommon above 10 or 20 kW in
rating.
– ground or protective earth is used as a protection
against electric shock, and ordinarily only carries
significant current when there is a circuit fault.
 Single-phase Power contd…

 Single phase power has a sine wave voltage that

crosses zero before reversing its polarity.

 In the region near the zero-crossing there is not

much power.

 At zero there is none at all.

– So single phase loads often need some trickery to
deliver output in this area.
– Often it is just the inertia of the motor or appliance.
 Three-phase power
 In contrast, in a three-phase
system, the currents in each
conductor reach their peak
instantaneous values sequentially,
not simultaneously; in each cycle of
the power frequency, first one, then
the second, then the third current
reaches its maximum value.

 The waveforms of the three supply

conductors are offset from one
another in time (delayed in phase)
by one-third of their period.

 A three phase system provides

constant torque, whereas single
phase does not.
With three phase you will get more
power per kilogram of metal to
generate electrical energy.
 Three-phase power contd…

 Three phase power is always delivering

power on one of its phases, and is thus
preferred for machines, motors and
appliances that use lots of power.

 If the application is large power, or small

power with weight restrictions (like
automobiles!) three phase is preferred.
 Advantages of 3-P power
 There are several advantages to three-phase power:
* Constant power delivery. Single-phase delivers zero power each time
the voltage crosses zero (120 times per second in the US), while with
three-phase each time a phase crosses zero there is still power being
delivered. This leads to three-phase motors in machinery running more
smoothly.
* Easier motor wiring. Three-phase induction motors don't require
brushes, start capacitors, or any of the complexities of single-phase
motors, and are easy to reverse as needed.
*Smaller wires required for connecting three-phase equipment.
Because the current is divided among the three phases instead of
between just two, the wires can be smaller and therefore are often
easier to handle.
 Use of DC
 DC (Direct Current) is the next step up for smooth high-
power devices but requires rectification, regulation and
smoothing to be useful.

 Another problem with DC is that, for efficient long distance

transmission, it cannot be simply converted to much higher
voltages than the voltage at which it was generated at the
power station.
– Similarly DC cannot be transformed down to safer, much lower
mains voltages for use by consumers.

 AC (Alternating Current) is used for high power generation

and distribution because it can easily be transformed, using
transformers, to achieve very efficient power transmission
over very long distances and can then be transformed
down to low voltages for distribution to consumers.
 Frequency of 1-P power
 Standard frequencies of single-phase power
systems are either 50 or 60 Hz.

 Special single-phase traction power

networks may operate at 16.67 Hz or other
frequencies to power electric railways.
 1-P power distribution
 Single-phase power distribution
is widely used especially in rural
areas, where the cost of a three-
phase distribution network is
high and motor loads are small
and uncommon.

 Single-phase power may be

used for electric railways;
– the largest single-phase
generator in the world, at
Neckarwestheim Nuclear Power
Plant, supplies a railway system
on a dedicated traction power
network.
 Electric Power Formulae
 W = E * I 
 W = R * I2
 W = E2/ R
 where
– W = power (Watts)
– E = voltage (Volts)
– I = current (Amperes)
– R = resistance (Ohms)
 Electric Power Formulae contd…

 Electric Current Formulas

 I = E / R        
 I = W / E     
 I = (W / R)1/2
 Electric Power Formulae contd…

 Electric Resistance Formulas

 R = E / I    
 R = E2/ W   
 R = W / I2
 Electric Power Formulae contd…

 Electrical Potential Formulas - Ohms Law

 Ohms law can be expressed as:
 E = R * I         (4a)
 E = W / I         (4b)
 E = (W * R)1/2         (4c)
 Example - Ohm's law
– A 12 volt battery supplies power to a resistance of 18
ohms.
– I = (12 Volts) / (18 ohms)
–     = 0.67 Ampere
 Electrical Motor Formulae
 Electrical Motor Efficiency
 μ = 746 Php / Winput        
 where
 μ = efficiency
 Php = output horsepower (hp)
 Winput = input electrical power (Watts)
 or alternatively
 μ = 746 Php / (1.732 * E * I * PF)
 Electrical Motor Formulae contd…

 Electrical Motor - Power

 W3-phase = (E * I * PF 1.732) / 1,000 
 where
– W3-phase = electrical power of 3-phase motor (kW)
– PF = power factor of electrical motor
 Electrical Motor Formulae contd…

 Electrical Motor - Amps

 I3-phase = (746 Php) / (1.732*E*μ*PF)
 where
 I3-phase = electrical current 3-phase motor (Amps)
 PF = power factor electrical motor
Power Factor of a 3-Phase Electrical Motor

 The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined

as the ratio of the active (true or real) power to the
apparent power
 where
– Active (Real or True) Power is measured in watts (W) and is the
power drawn by the electrical resistance of a system doing useful
work.
– Apparent Power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is the
voltage on an AC system multiplied by all the current that flows in it.
It is the vector sum of the active and the reactive power.
– Reactive Power  is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
Reactive Power is power stored in and discharged by inductive
motors, transformers and solenoids
 Reactive Power
 Reactive power is required for
the magnetization of a motor but
doesn't perform any action.

 The reactive power required by

inductive loads increases the
amounts of apparent power -
measured in kilovolt amps (kVA)
- in the distribution system.

 Increasing of the reactive and

apparent power will cause the
power factor - PF - to decrease.
 Power Factor
 It is common to define the Power Factor - PF - as the
cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current - or
the "cosφ".

 The power factor defined by IEEE and IEC is the ratio

between the applied active (true) power - and the
apparent power, and can in general be expressed as:
– PF = P / S  
where
 PF = power factor
 P = active (true or real) power (Watts)
 S = apparent power (VA, volts amps)
 Power Factor - Characteristics
 A low power factor is the result of
inductive loads such as transformers
and electric motors.

 Unlike resistive loads creating heat by

consuming kilowatts, inductive loads
require a current flow to create magnetic
fields to produce the desired work.

 Power factor is an important

measurement in electrical AC systems
because
– an overall power factor less than 1
indicates that the electricity supplier
need to provide more generating
capacity than actually required
– the current waveform distortion that
contributes to reduced power factor is
caused by voltage waveform distortion
and overheating in the neutral cables of
three-phase systems
 Power Factor - Example
 A industrial plant draws 200 A at 400 V and the supply transformer and
backup UPS is rated 200 A × 400 V = 80 kVA.

 If the power factor - PF - of the loads is only 0.7 - only

80 kVA × 0.7
    = 56 kVA
of real power is consumed by the system.

 If the power factor is close to 1 the supply system with transformers,

cables, switchgear and UPS could be made considerably smaller.
A low power factor is expensive and inefficient and some utility
companies may charge additional fees when the power factor is less
than 0.95.

 A low power factor will reduce the electrical system's distribution

capacity by increasing the current flow and causing voltage drops.
 Power Factor for a 3-Phase Motor
 The total power required by an inductive device as a motor or similar
consists of
– Active (true or real)  power (measured in kilowatts, kW)
– Reactive power - the nonworking power caused by the magnetizing
current, required to operate the device (measured in kilovars, kVAR)

 The power factor for a three-phase electric motor can be expressed as:
– PF = P / [(3)1/2 U I]        
where
 PF = power factor
 P = power applied (W, watts)
 U = voltage (V)
 I = current (A, amps)
 Power Basics
 Electrical power is in general rated in Watts or Horsepower.

 A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746 watts or

33,000 lb.ft per minute (or 550 lb.ft per second).

 A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by

a current of 1 amp across the potential difference of 1 volt.

 A watt is 1/746 of 1 horsepower.

 Even if the watt is the base unit of electrical power, its

common to rate motor power in either horsepower or watts.
 Power Basics
 Electric power of a motor can be expressed
as:
– Pw = ηm *U * I 
where
 Pw = power (W, watt)
 ηm = motor efficiency
 U = voltage (V)
 I = current (A, amps)
 Power in Horsepower
 Horse power of a motor can be expressed
as:
– Php = Pw / 746  
– or
– Php = ηm* U * I / 746 
where
 Php = horsepower (hp)
 The Horsepower of an electrical motor

 The horse power of an 230 V electrical

motor with 85% efficiency pulling 10 amps
can be calculated as:

Php = 0.85 (230 V) (10 amps) / 746

–     = 2.62 hp