The Significance of Theory in Social

Science Research
Professor Emeritus Dr. Maimunah Ismail
20 March, 2020
 What is theory?
• A model or framework for observation and understanding
– shapes both what we see and how we see it;
– allows the researcher to make links between
• the abstract and the concrete,
• the theoretical and the empirical/practical,

• Generalising statements that assert a connection between

two or more types of phenomena
• Explains and predicts the relationship between variables

• A system of interconnected ideas that organises knowledge

about the world
 Characteristics of theory
• Theory guides research and organises its ideas.
– As scaffolding structure
– A good practice comes from a sound theory

• Empirically relevant, and always tentative, subjected

to further validation
• Becomes stronger as more supporting evidence is
gathered; provides a context for predictions
• Has the capacity to generate new research.
 Theory vs. hypothesis
• A hypothesis is an educated/justifiable guess. It
usually predicts the relationship between two
or more variables. Also predicts the difference
of a characteristic between two groups.

• Hypotheses are more specific than theories.

• Multiple hypotheses may relate to one theory.

Remember that theory can operate on
different levels
• Micro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at the level of
the individual or family environment
– e.g. psychology – Frustration-Aggression hypothesis or Sternberg’s theory
of love

• Meso-level theory seeks to explain the interactions of micro-

level organisms
– e.g. social institutions, organisations, communities

• Macro-level theory seeks to explain behaviour at the level of

large groups of people
– e.g. ethnicity, class, gender – Gender Role Theory
 How to evaluate a theory
• Is the theory or explanation logical and coherent?
• Is it clear and parsimonious?
• Does it fit the available data?
• Does it provide testable claims?
• Have theory-based predictions been tested and
supported?
• Has it survived numerous attempts by researchers to
identify problems with it or to falsify it?
• Does it work better than competing or rival theories
or explanations?
 How to evaluate a theory
(cont…)
• Is it general enough to apply to more than one place,
situation, or person?

• Can practitioners use it to control or influence things in the

world
– a good theory of teaching helps teachers to positively influence student
learning;
– a good theory of counseling helps counselors to positively influence their
clients’ mental health
 Theory as a ‘paradigm’: Four key
questions
1. What do we believe exists? (Ontology)
– Fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the
nature of the social world and its relationship to
individual social actors.
• Social reality exists independent of the observer: Every one
has the right to learn, to improve life
• Social reality is constructed by people in particular social,
cultural and historical contexts

2. What constitutes reliable & valid knowledge?

(Epistemology)
• Causal relationships between observable phenomena
• Interpretations of meaning
 Four key paradigm questions
(contd.)
• How we produce reliable and valid knowledge?
(Methods – study approaches)
– What ‘Strategies of inquiry’ (Creswell) are appropriate
to our ontological/epistemological position
– (descriptive/confirmatory <-> explanatory/exploratory)
• How can the collected data to test our theories or
describe social phenomena? (Methods - analysis)
– What data collection approaches/tools are appropriate
to the methodology
 Deductive theory
• Empirical results affect the way theory is expanded
and altered. In a deductive approach, researchers use
theory to guide the design of a study and the
interpretation of results. As researchers continue to
conduct empirical research in testing a theory, they
develop confidence that some parts of it are true.

• Researchers may modify propositions/hypotheses of

a theory or reject them if several well-conducted
studies have negative/opposite findings.
 Inductive theory
• Inductive theorising begins with a few assumptions
and broad orienting concepts. Theory develops from
the ground up as the researchers gather and analyse
the data. Theory emerges slowly, concept by
concept, and proposition by proposition, in a specific
area. Over time, the concepts and empirical
generalisations emerge and mature. Soon,
relationships become visible and researchers weave
knowledge from different studies into more abstract
theory.
 Models of social research
1. Qualitative study
• An inquiry which seeks to understand social phenomena
through the exploration and interpretation of the
meanings people attach to, and make sense of, their
experiences of the social world “
• Associated with the Interpretive paradigm
• Key principle: Subjectivity/interpretation
• Theory developed: during and/or after the
study (theory generation)
• Process: Inductive
 Models of social research
2. Quantitative study
• An inquiry based on testing a theory composed of variables,
measured with numbers and analysed with statistical
procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive
generalisations of the theory hold true
• Associated with: Post/positivist paradigm
• Key principle: Objectivity
• Theory stated: before the study (theory verification)
• Process: Deductive (hypotheses are deduced from
theories and evidence or literature)
 Models of social research
3. Mixed-method study
• Qualitative and quantitative strategies
used in a single study

Concurrent:
Quantitative and qualitative strategies
employed in parallel
Sequential:
Qualitative informs quantitative (or vice
versa) – one after another
 Theory as a lens
• Existing theory(s) which seek to explain how aspects of
social reality ‘work’ (models). E.g.
– Models of learning
• Behaviourist (Skinner, 1963); Social constructivist (Vygotsky,
1994)

– Models of professional/expertise/career development

• Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, Brown & Hackett,
1994, 2000, 2004).
 Theory as new knowledge
• Adaptation, revision or confirmation of
existing theory
• Generation of new theory
• Relates to conceptual framework
(Ajzen, 1991)
TERIMA KASIH / THANK YOU
www.upm.edu.my