RESEARCH STRATEGY,

RESEARCH DESIGN,
RESEARCH METHODS and
RESEARCH ETHICS
1. Factors influencing social research
2. Research Strategy: Qualitative, Quantitative
3. Research Design
– Case study
– Comparative study
– Longitudinal study
– Longitudinal/comparative study
– Experiment
4. Research Methods
-surveys and interviews
-observation
-content analysis
5. Research ethics
 Sociologists do scientific research using the
scientific method
• Sociologists ask questions about the social
world, and observe that world in search of
answers to their questions.
• They produce knowledge about the social
world that is supported by empirical or
tangible evidence
• Their research follows a disciplined logical
order- called the scientific method- in
order to have scientific value
Following the basic elements of the scientific
method, sociologists:
• Choose a research topic and find out what
others have discovered about that topic
• Ask good researchable questions
• Choose appropriate research strategy, design
and methods to collect data
• Follow strict procedures when collecting and
analyzing data
• Make the results of research public
FACTORS INFLUENCING ALL SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

• A theory is a perspective or template a

researcher uses to organize how s/he
views the world: it provides a guideline
for explaining any regularity s/he
observes in the data. Theories are well
tested, and supported by evidence.
They are open to being refuted.
• Values refer to the beliefs and feelings
that a researcher holds.
 THEORY
In sociology, theory directs our attention to
• certain aspects of people’s behaviour, or to certain
events or social relationships and social institutions, and
• suggest a framework by which we can understand what
we observe.
• Two ways of approaching theory- arrive at it using
inductive reasoning or test it using deductive reasoning
• Here’s a simplified example of the difference between
inductive and deductive reasoning:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SA7mHzWmh_k
 Deductive Reasoning
Sociologists use deductive reasoning to
test hypotheses, theories
• Deductive reasoning means we move
from general to particular- in order to
arrive at logical conclusions about
specific things under observation
 Deductive Reasoning
We hold a theory or propose a hypothesis -
based on that we make predictions about
what our observations should be if the
theory/hypothesis is correct
We go from the general- theory, hypothesis
- to the specific – the observation(s)
 Deductive Reasoning
In deductive reasoning, if something is true
of a class of things in general, it is also
true for all members of that class.
Example: "All men are mortal. Harold is a
man. Therefore, Harold is mortal." 
Deductive reasoning lets researchers apply
theories/hypotheses (generalities) to
specific situations
 Inductive Reasoning
-works from observations to generalization
-we make observations, detect a pattern in
those observations and then “infer” an
explanation
- Used by sociologists to form hypotheses and
theories
• Theory arrived at inductively is often called
grounded theory.
 Inductive Reasoning
-Even if all of the premises are true in a statement,
inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false.
Something that is true for a specific members of a general
class is not necessarily true for all members of that
general class.
Example: "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald.
Therefore, all grandfathers are bald."
The conclusion does not follow logically from the
statements.
(see
http://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-inducti
on.html
) for further discussion of inductive/deductive reasoning)
 REVIEW: INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE USE OF
THEORY IN RESEARCH
• When research is done to answer the questions
posed by a theory, theory is used deductively to
guide the collection and analysis of data.
Researchers begin with a general theory, and apply
it to a specific situation to test that theory.

• But theory can also be arrived at inductively, after

the data has been collected and analyzed. In this
case theory is arrived at when researchers draw
generalizable inferences from the results of their
research.
 VALUES
• A “value” is an attitude, belief or opinion
which a person holds and which affects
or influences his or her behaviour.

• Can (should) sociological research ever

be value free?
Max Weber (1864-1920)
 The difference between a social
scientist and a natural scientist
(according to Weber)
Natural scientists are interested in
• observing natural events
• eventually formulating abstract laws
• explaining the events.
 Continue…

Social scientists are interested in

• observing events in human social
interaction
• deriving abstract laws to explain them
• having concerns with particular qualities in
the human actors s/he observes
• the meaning that those actors,
themselves, ascribe to their actions.
An epistemological question for sociologists:

• Can the social world be studied using

the same principles and procedures
as in the natural sciences ?
 Weber’s answer is both yes and no……
• Value Relevance- what attracts sociologists to
study a problem in the first place- Here Weber
says no - a sociologist chooses a problem based
on her values
But….
• Value Neutrality – a sociologist must take a value
neutral position when he analyzes the data. So
here Weber - says yes. Sociologists should seek
out the “truth” and leave advocacy up to others.
Howard Becker, 1928-
American Sociologist, Jazz musician. Major contributions
to sociology of deviance, sociology of art, sociology of
music, research methodologies
 Howard Becker’s answer (1967) is pretty
straightforward….
• Earlier in his career Howard Becker maintained it is
not possible to do research “that is uncontaminated
by personal and political sympathies”…. The real
question that should be asked, Becker tells us, is
“whose side we are on”
https://www.sfu.ca/~palys/Becker1967-WhoseSide
AreWeOn.pdf

• Becker argued that sociologists should do research

that helps oppressed people. Sociologists should
always side with the underdog.
 More recently (2012) his advice is a bit more
muted:
-Do the best research you can
-Look at everything that might be worth looking at
even when others think you're wrong
-Don't worry about whether anyone finds your
results useful
-It's the best way to produce knowledge that will
really work, if anyone is willing to try it.
 Elements common to all sociological
research:

• Strategy
• Design
• Methods
 RESEARCH STRATEGY
• A research strategy is the general
orientation a sociologist takes to how she
conducts her research
• Either quantitative and qualitative.
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STRATEGY
• Quantitative research strategy is used
when researcher wants to answer
questions such as - How much? How
many? How often?
• Researcher focuses on collecting and
processing data often using statistical
procedures.
• Quantitative data is usually expressed in
numbers, percentages, or rates
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STRATEGY
• deductive theory (moves from the
general to the particular in terms of
explaining research findings)
• objectivism as ontological orientation
(external facts)
• value neutral or objective stance to
the role of values in the research
process.
 DEDUCTIVE THEORY
• research questions are formulated in response
to an existing theory or theories,
• testable hypotheses are deduced from the
theories
• research is then conducted to verify or falsify
the hypotheses.
• Use of theory moves from the general to the
particular
 DEDUCTIVE THEORY AND
THE QUANTATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Theory

2. Hypothesis

3. Collect Data

4. Process Data

5. Analyze Data

6. Findings/conclusions
 VALUE NEUTRALITY
• As far as is reasonably possible, a
researcher should strive to achieve
value neutrality in conducting and
analyzing the results of research.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STRATEGY
• Researcher collects data that are rich in
description and not easily handled using
statistical procedures. Researcher is less
concerned with numbers and more concerned
with what people say.
• Qualitative data are usually expressed in
words, and focus on the way in which research
subjects feel about something, or the ways in
which they understand something.
Characteristically, qualitative research is:
• Guided by wide-ranging, complex research
question(s)
• Rich in detail
• Intended to contextualize a situation, not
demonstrate a relationship between two
variables
• Designed to provide a holistic account of a
social phenomenon or social problem
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STRATEGY
• usually inductivist theory, (from
particular to general)
• interpretivist epistemological
orientation (what subjects say, believe)
• value relevant –holds it is not possible
(desirable) to keep the personal beliefs
and values of a researcher in check.
 1. INDUCTIVE THEORY
• In research informed by a qualitative
research strategy we begin with
questions to investigate and only
later do we derive theory from the
data
 INDUCTIVE THEORY AND
THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Research questions

 
2. Collect (more) Data
6. Write up Findings

3. Interpret Data
5. Revise/develop new research
questions

4. Generate Theory
 VALUE RELEVANCE
• Qualitative strategy usually
acknowledges the influence of social and
cultural values on research
• Often a qualitative research strategy is
informed by social ethics based on
principles of justice
HOW TO EVALUATE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• RELIABILITY – are the measures used in the

study reliable- i.e. do they produce consistent
outcomes?
• REPILICATION - can the study be replicated by
other researchers
• VALIDITY- do the concepts used actually
measure what they claim to measure
 HOW TO EVALUATE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Credibility – are the findings believable?

• Transferability – can the findings be applied to
other contexts?
• Dependability – can the findings be relied on to
remain constant over time?
• Conformability – to what extent has the
researcher allowed his or her personal values to
intrude into the analysis? (Bryman 2004:30).
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STRATEGIES
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlU22hT
yIs4
 Research Design
• the framework a researcher uses to collect
and analyze data
• the choice of research design reflects the
priorities a researcher gives to considerations
such as:
– Time
– Understanding the meaning of social behavior
– Sample size
– General or specific application of findings
 5 RESEARCH DESIGNS
• case study,
• longitudinal study,
• comparison study,
• longitudinal comparison study and
• experimental
 1. The case study
• Answers the question “What is happening”? - is there a relationship between
variables X and Y in entity A, where entity A is a group, a social situation, a text, or
some other focus of research?

• Usually (but not always) conducted using qualitative research strategy because that
strategy can generate data that allow the researcher to examine the case under study
in an intensive and detailed ways

• Usually (but not always) require direct observation of the lives of individuals, groups

• Often findings provide researchers/readers with insights into the concerns, issues,
feelings, experiences, relationships of persons or people understudy. Case studies
reveal how individuals actions, beliefs, behaviours etc are shaped by social context

• Often the objectives of researchers involved in a case study is to develop theory

(working inductively), to identify social problems and to propose solutions
• See: https://explorable.com/case-study-research-design
 2. Longitudinal study

• A longitudinal study involves the same units of study

(individuals, households, social club etc) with a certain
amount of time between the instances of data gathering
• Like case studies, longitudinal studies can be about a
small-scale study of particular group or large-scale survey
of a sample of a national or multi-national population
• asks the question “Has there been any change over a
period of time in a group, a social situation, text, or other
unit of study”?
• Is the relationship between variables X and Y in the unit of
study the same or different at time 1 and time 2.
 3. Comparison study
• A comparison study is a study of the relationship between
two or more variables done for two or more entities at the
same point in time.
• The logic of this design is that comparison of the
occurrence of same social phenomena in two or more
cases, be they organizations, community groups, families
etc., helps us to better understand those phenomena.
• Cross-cultural research and cross-national research are
two typical forms of comparison studies.
• Used to answer question: “Are social entities, groups,
situations, texts or other focus of research different”? Is
the relationship between variables X and Y the same in
entity A as it is in entity B?
 4. Longitudinal comparison study

• Combine the comparison and

longitudinal approaches, and the result is
a longitudinal comparison study –
• Longitudinal comparison research design
can be used to answer the general
question “ have the differences between
X and Y in groups A and B changed over
time”?
 5. Experiment
• An experimental research design is used to determine what
(if any) effect a change in one variable has on another
• Is the difference in Y (dependent variable) between Group
A and Group B due to a change in X (the independent
variable)?
• Although experimental research is considered the strongest
of all research designs in terms of producing robust and
trustworthy results with internal validity, true experiments
are rarely conducted in sociology. They are more frequently
used in the related areas of social psychology,
organizational studies, and social policy
• Lab experiments and field experiments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6pIJCdOdgP0
 RESEARCH METHODS
Data gathering methods are the actual
techniques for collecting data. Sociologists use
three main methods:
• Surveys and Interviews
• Structured Observation; Participant
Observation
• Content Analysis
 Quantitative Methods
When a quantitative research strategy is
chosen, the main methods (techniques)
are
• content analysis of documents,
• surveys,
• structured interviews and
questionnaires, and
• structured observation.
 Qualitative Methods

The main methods for collecting data within a

qualitative research strategy include
• field work,
• participant observation,
• non- obtrusive observation,
• focus groups,
• interviewing and
• content analysis of documents
 Research Ethics
• researchers must conduct their research according
to guidelines set by their university’s research ethics
boards

Researchers must:
guard against the uncritical promotion of research,
which...furthers the power of states, corporations,
churches, or other institutions over the lives and
cultures of research subjects...” (Canadian Sociology
and Anthropology Association’s code of ethics)
 Ethics boards commonly require that:
• research participants must give informed
consent to be part of the research
• the identity of research participants must be
protected (unless the participant gives written
permission to being identified)
• research participants must not be coerced either
into participating or into divulging information
• researchers must store their data in a secure
place, for up to seven years (Bouma, Ling and
Wilkinson 2009: 42).
Researchers must NOT:
• “exploit individuals or groups for personal
gain”
• exposes participants to the risk of personal
harm,
• deceive their subjects about the nature of the
research “if there is any reasonably
anticipated risk to the subjects or if the harm
cannot be offset or the extent of the harm be
reasonable predicted” (Canadian Sociology
and Anthropology Association’s code of ethics)
Researchers should openly disseminate
results of their research, except those
results likely to “endanger research
participants or to violate their anonymity
or confidentiality”.
Research participants have the right to
feedback on the results of the research,
and to be consulted (when practicable)
over the content of publications.