CONCRETE

Introduction
Slump Test
• Concrete and steel are the two most commonly used
structural materials
• Steel is manufactured under carefully controlled conditions.
Its properties are determined in a laboratory and described in
a manufacturer’s certificate
• Concrete structural members quality is almost exclusively
dependent on the workmanship of concrete making and
placing
• An engineer’s supervision on site is essential
 What is good concrete?
Two overall criteria
1. Concrete has to be satisfactory in its hardened state i.e.
achieve satisfactory compressive strength and durability
2. Has to be satisfactory in its fresh state while being
transported from the mixer and placed in the formwork- in
other words, consistency of the mix should be such that it
can be compacted without excessive effort, and also be
cohesive enough so as not to produce segregation
 Constituent materials of concrete
• Cement - 12%
• Aggregate (fine + coarse):
-26% (sand) + 41% (gravel)
• Water – 15%
• Admixtures -
• Air – 6%
 Cement
• Cement is the bonding material used with
stones, sand, bricks, building blocks etc.
• The cements of interest in the making of
concrete have the property of setting and
hardening under water hence the name
hydraulic cements
• Consist mainly of silicates and aluminates of
lime
• Hydraulic cements:
(i) Natural cements
(ii) Portland cements
(iii) High alumna cements
 Process of cement Manufacture
1. GRINDING raw materials (limestone +
clay/shale)
2. MIXING them intimately in certain
proportions
3. BURNING in a large rotary kiln (up to 1450°C)
4. CLINKER is formed which is a fusion of the
materials into balls under intense heat
 Process of cement Manufacture
5. GRINDING-Clinker is cooled and ground to a
fine powder
6. GYPSUM- is added
7. PORTLAND CEMENT is made
 Chemical composition of cement
• CaO (lime) = 60-67%
• SiO2 (silica) = 17-25%
• Al2O3 (Alumina) = 3-8%
• Fe2O3 (Iron oxide) = 0.5- 6%
• MgO = 0.5- 4%
• SO3 = 2.0- 3.5%
• Alkalis (as Na2O) = 0.3-1.2%
 Fusion Process
• Four main compounds (phases) are formed in
the fusion process:
• Tricalcium Silcate = C3S = 48%
• Dicalcium Silcate = C2S = 24%
• Tricalcium Aluminate = C3A = 13%
• Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite = CuAF = 9%
 Hydration of Cement
• For an initial period after mixing, the fluidity of
the cement/water paste remains relatively
constant
• At a time called the initial set (2-4 hours after
mixing at normal temperatures), the mix starts
to stiffen at a much faster rate.
• However, it still has little or no strength and
hardening does not start until after the final set,
which occurs some hours later.
• The rate of strength gain is rapid for the next one or
two days and continues but at a steadily decreasing
rate for at least a few months
• Cement paste also gets warm especially during the
setting and early hardening period (i.e. hydration
reactions are exothermic)
• The rate of hydration depends on the relative
properties of silicate and aluminate compounds, the
cement fineness and the ambient conditions
(temperature and moisture)
• Mechanisation of hydration: formation of a gel
around each of the cement particles and in
time these layers of gel grow to the extent
that they come into contact with each other.
At this stage, the cement paste begins to lose
its fluidity
 Structure of hardened cement paste

(1) A residue of unhydrated cement

(2)The hydrates (calcium silicates, calcium
aluminates, sulphoaluminates and ferrites
(3) Crystals of calcium hydroxide
(4) Unfilled residues of the spaces between the
cement grains called capillary pores
Calcium silicate hydrates occupy the largest
proportion of the volume and governs the
mechanical properties
Strength of Hardened Cement Paste (HCP)

• The strength of HCP derives from van der

waals type forces between the hydrate layers
• Although these forces are of relatively low
magnitude, the integrated effect over the
enormous surface areas is considerable
• Factors that affect the strength of the HCP are:
(i) Unhydrated cement (ii) hydrated gel and
capillary forces (iii) water cement ratio (iv) age
• Unhydrated Cement: this is not detrimental to
strength, and can be beneficial in that it is
exposed if the paste or concrete is
subsequently cracked, and can therefore form
new hydrates to seal the crack and restore
some structural integrity, provided of course,
some water is present (self healing property)
 Water cement ratio and age
• Decreasing water cement ratio and increasing
age result in increasing compressive strength and
also result in decreasing porosity.
• The size of the pores, rather than their total
volume is an important factor
• However, very low w/c ratio results into non
hydrated cement and therefore reduces strength
• An optimum value of w/c ratio is essential to
achieve complete hydration of cement
 Aggregates
• By adding aggregate to cement paste, concrete is produced
• Aggregates occupy most of the volume of concrete and are
used because :
(i) They are an economical filler
(ii) They provide better dimensional stability and wear resistance
• Aggregates can either be uncrushed (coming from a natural
gravel deposit) or crushed
• Spherical in shape and rounded aggregates contribute to
better workability of concrete
• Irregular in shape and rough surface aggregates improve the
bonding characteristics of concrete
 Classification of Aggregates
• Normal weight aggregates: rocks that produce
these aggregates have specific gravities within a
limited range and therefore all produce densities
with similar densities e.g. 2250-2450 kg/m³
• Lightweight aggregates: used to produce lower
density concretes, which are advantageous in
reducing self weight of structures and also have
better thermal insulation than normal weight
concrete
 Classification of Concrete
• Heavyweight Aggregates: where concrete of
high density is required (e.g. radiation
shielding) heavy weight aggregates can be
used e.g. densities of 3500-4500kg/m³
• Any sample of aggregates will contain a
continuous spectrum of sizes, from the
smallest to the largest.
• Properties of aggregates influencing fresh or
hardened concrete properties are:
(i) Shape
(ii) Porosity and absorption
(iii) Elasticity
(iv) Strength
(v) Surface characteristics
(vi) grading
 Grading
• Grading refers to the determination of the
particle-size distribution for aggregate.
• Grading limits and maximum aggregate size
are specified because these properties affect
the amount of aggregate used as well as
cement and water requirements, workability,
pumpability, and durability of concrete.
• Particle shape and surface texture influence
the properties of freshly mixed concrete more
than the properties of hardened concrete
• Rough-textured, angular, and elongated
particles require more water to produce
workable concrete than smooth, rounded
compact aggregate.
 Admixtures
• They are chemicals added to concrete
immediately before or during mixing and
significantly change its fresh early age or
hardened state to advantage
• Only small quantities are required (typically 1-
2% by weight of cement.
 Admixtures
• There are three main classes:
(i) Plasticisers
(ii) Accelerators or retarders
(iii) Air entraining agents
 Plasticisers
• Also called workability aids or water reducers
• They increase workability or fluidity
• They can also produce concrete with the same
workability at a lower water/cement ratio,
hence increasing strength and durability
 Accelerators
• Are used to increase the rate of hardening of
the cement paste, thus enhancing the early
strength (allows early removal of formwork)
 Retarders
• Delay the setting time of a mix (e.g.
counteracting the accelerating effect of hot
weather particularly if concrete has to be
transported over a long distance)
 Air entraining agents
• When added to the mix, water entrain a
controlled quantity of air in the cement paste.
• The major reason is to provide free-thaw
resistance to concrete
• They provide a reservoir for the water to
expand into when it freezes
Fresh and early age properties of concrete

• The behaviour and treatment of the concrete

during the period before setting (typically 6-10
hours after casting) and during the first few
days of hardening, have a significant effect on
the long term performance.
• The main properties of interest in the freshly
mixed concrete are the following:
• FLUIDITY: it must be capable of being handled
and of flowing into the formwork and around
any reinforcement, with the assistance of
whatever equipment that is available
• COMPACTABILITY: all of the air entrapped
during mixing should be removed by the
compacting system used e.g. a vibrator
• STABILTY OR COHESIVENESS: concrete should
remain as a homogeneous uniform mass (e.g.
mortar should not be so fluid that it
segregates from the coarse aggregate)
 WORKABILITY
• WORKABILITY= FLUIDITY + COMPACTABILITY
• In general, higher workability concretes are
easier to place and handle
• But if this high workability is obtained by an
increased water content, then a lower strength
and durability will result
• The best test for the investigation of workability
of concrete is the so called
‘SLUMP TEST’
Slump Test
 references
• Chudley R & Greeno R (2008), Building
Construction Handbook: London, Butterworth-
Heinemann
• University of Cyprus concrete notes
• Various internet sources retrieved on
http/www.google.com