Individual response to Training:

Age & Gender Consideration

Dr. Norhazira Abdul Rahim

Sport Science Department
Faculty of Sport Sciences and Coaching
Individual response to Training:
Age & Gender Consideration

• Children
• Adolescents
• Aging
• Gender
(1) Children
 (1) Children

• Growth, Development and Maturation

i. Bone
ii. Muscle
iii. Fat
(1) Children
 (1) Children
Example: Maturation of Immune System
 (1) Children
Bone

•Bones, joints, cartilage, and ligaments

form the body’s structural support.

•Bones function:
- provide points of attachment for the
muscles
- protect delicate tissues
- act as reservoirs for calcium and
phosphorus
- some are involved in blood cell
formation
Bone Development :

•During fetal development, as well

as during the initial
14 to 22 years of life, membranes
and cartilage are transformed into
bone through the process of
ossification, or bone formation.

Growth plate
-is the area of growing tissue near the ends of the
long bones in children and adolescents.

-Each long bone has at least two growth plates; one at each

end. The growth plate determines the future length and
shape of the mature bone
 (1) Children

Bone Formation from Fetus (baby) to Adolescent

(1) Children
 (1) Children

Bone Mineral Density : Throughout Lifespan in Woman

 (1) Children

(iii) Fat Cell

in Children
FAT CELLS
 Fat cells form and fat deposition starts in these cells
early in fetal development, and this process continues
indefinitely thereafter.

Each fat cell can increase in size at any age from birth to death.

The amount of fat that accumulates with growth and aging

depends on:
• diet
• exercise habits
• heredity
FAT IN CHILDREN

At birth, 10% to 12% of total body weight is fat.

At physical maturity, the fat content reaches approximately

15% of total body weight for males and approximately
25% for females.

Fat cell & Gender

-Muscle growth, is primarily related to hormonal differences
-When girls reach puberty, their estrogen concentrations and
tissue exposure increase, promoting the deposition of body fat.
The changes in percent body fat for both males and females
from ages 8 to 20 years

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 Special Issues
of Children related to Exercise
 (1) Children
Special Issues
of Children related to Exercise

(1) Thermal Stress

(2) Growth and

Maturation
 Special Issues
of Children related to Exercise

(1) Thermal Stress

 Research suggest that children are more susceptible to heat- and cold-
induced illness or injury than adults.

major concern is the child’s apparently lower capacity during exercise in the
heat to dissipate heat through evaporation.

 Children appear to rely much more on convection and radiation, which are
enhanced through greater peripheral vasodilation.

Individual sweat glands in children form sweat more slowly and are less
sensitive to increases in the body’s core temperature than those in adults
Special Issues
of Children related to Exercise

(2) Growth and Maturation

 Physical training appears to have little or no negative effect

on normal growth and development.

 Its effects on markers of sexual maturation are less clear.

Aging in Exercise
Aging in Exercise
i. Body composition
ii. Bone
iii. Muscle mass
iv.Cardiovascular
(i) Body Composition

Height loss is related to aging

• As we age, we tend to lose height and gain weight.

• The reduction in height generally starts at about 35 to

40 years of age

• People typically lose almost one-half inch (about 1 cm) every

10 years after age 40. 
Height loss is even more rapid after age 70. 

• Due to changes in the bones, muscles, and joints

(osteopenia & osteoporosis as primary factors)
(ii) Bone loss in aging
Osteopenia and osteoporosis

*Osteopenia is decreased bone density but not to the extent of osteoporosis.

- condition that begins as you lose bone mass
- it is very common as you age
(iii) Muscle mass loss
a) Sarcopenia
• Loss of muscle mass associated with aging
(iii) Muscle mass loss
b) Atrophy
Loss of muscle mass associated with lessor or no physical exercise
and a sedentary lifestyle

Above Figure : Normally active bicep compared to a sedentary,

atrophied bicep. Muscle atrophy is the loss of muscle mass over time.
(iv) Cardiovascular in Aging

As we age…
 Maximum heart rate decreases about 1 beat/ min per
year
 Peripheral blood flow also decreases with age

Exercise in Aged Person

 Habitual exercise can partially reverse or prevent many
of the vascular changes that occur with aging, including
improving endothelial function

 Aging athletes have only slightly decreased pulmonary

ventilation capacity

Pulmonary changes related to aging are primarily caused

by a loss of elasticity in the lung tissue and the chest wall.
 (1) Children
Special Issues
of Aging in Exercise

(1) Environmental
Stress

(2) Longevity and

Risk to Injury &
Death
Special Issues
of Aging in Exercise

(1)Environmental Stress

a) Exposure to Heat & Cold

Special Issues
of Aging in Exercise

(2) Longevity and Risk to Injury & Death

 there is a decrease in mortality rate and a small increase in

longevity (about 2 years) among people who remain
physically active throughout life
(Harvard University and the University of Pennsylvania)

 Studies show that as people get older they are at a greater

risk for injuries involving tendons, cartilage, and bone.

 Injuries occur, the healing process is usually prolonged

and complete recovery can take up to a full year.
Important Terms
• osteopenia
• osteoporosis
• sarcopenia