STONES

STONE
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
3. BUILDING STONES
4. TESTS FOR STONES
5. QUALITIES OF GOOD BUILDING STONES
6. USES OF BUILDING STONES
7. DETERIORATION OF STONES
8. PRESERVATION OF STONES
9. DRESSING AND FINISHES OF STONES

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 INTRODUCTION
 The history of mankind is supposed to have begun with the stone age marked by the use of
implements and weapons made of stone.
 Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth
material which are present in rocks.
 Rocks may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite shape and
structure.
 All rocks have a definite chemical composition and are made up of minerals and organic
matter.
 Some of the rock forming minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, dolomite etc.
 The various types of rocks from which building stones are usually derived are granite,
marble, slate, sandstone, limestone, etc.
 Use of stone in building construction is traditional
 Stone has been used in the construction of most of the important structures since pre-
historic age.
 Stone has also been extensively used in almost all the elements of building structures, as
load carrying units as well as for enhancing the beauty and elegance of the structure.

STONE
 INTRODUCTION
 SOURCES OF STONES
 The stones are obtained from rocks. A rock represents a definite portion of earth’s
surface
 It is not homogeneous.
 If it contains only one mineral, then it is known as the monomineralic rock.
 If it contains several minerals, it is known as polymineralic rock.
 The quartz sand, chemically pure gypsum and magnesite are examples of the
monomineralic rocks.
 Granite and basalt are the examples of the polymineralic rock.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF
ROCKS
The building stones are obtained from the rocks which are classified in the following
The building stones are obtained from the rocks which are classified in the following
three ways:

Classification of
Rocks

Geological Physical Chemical

Igneous Stratified Unstratified Foliated Silicious

Rocks Rocks Rocks Rocks Rocks

Sedimentary Argillaceous
Rocks Rocks

Metamorphic Calcareous
Rocks Rocks

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 GEOLOGICAL
 IGNEOUS ROCKS CLASSIFICATION OF

ROCKS
The inside portion of the earth’s surface has high temperature so as to cause fusion by
heat at even ordinary pressures.
 The molten or pasty rocky material is known as the magma and this magma
occasionally tries to come out to the earth’s surface through cracks or weak portions.
 The rocks which are formed by cooling of magma are known as igneous rocks.

Plutonic Such rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at a considerable depth
from earths surface. The cooling is slow and the rock possess coarsely
Rocks
grained crystalline structure. The igneous rocks commonly used in building
industry are of plutonic type.
The granite is the leading example of this type of rock.
Hypabyssal Such rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at a relatively shallow depth
from earths surface. The cooling is quick and hence these rocks possess
Rocks
finely grained crystalline structure
The dolerite is the leading example of this type of rock.
Volcanic Such rocks are formed due to pouring of magma at earth’s surface. The
cooling is very rapid as compared to the previous two cases. Hence these
Rocks
rocks are extremely fine grained in structure. They frequently contain some
quantity of glass which is non-crystalline material
The basalt is an example of this type of rock.

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 GEOLOGICAL
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS CLASSIFICATION OF
ROCKS
 These rocks are formed by the deposition of products of weathering on the pre-existing
rocks.
 All the products of weathering are ultimately carried away from their place of origin by
the agents of transport.
 Such agents are frost, rain, wind, flowing water, etc
Following are the four type of deposits occur:.
Residual Some portion of the products of weathering remain at the site of origin.
Deposits Such a deposit is known as residual deposits.

Sedimentary The insoluble parts of weathering are carried away in suspension and when
such products are deposited, they give rise to the sedimentary deposits.
Deposits
Chemical Some material that is carried away in solution may be deposited by some
physio-chemical process such as evaporation, precipitation etc. It gives rise
Deposits
to the chemical deposits
Organic Some portion of the product of weathering gets deposited through the
agency of organisms. Such deposits are known as the organic deposits
Deposits

The examples of sedimentary rocks are gravel, sandstone, limestone,

gypsum and lignite etc.
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 GEOLOGICAL
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS CLASSIFICATION OF

ROCKS
These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing rocks.
 The igneous as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they are
subject to great heat and pressure. The process of change is known as metamorphism.
 The mineral composition and texture of a rock represent a system which is in
equilibrium with its physio-chemical surroundings.
 The increase of temperature and pressure upsets this equilibrium and metamorphism
results from an effort to re-establish a new equilibrium.
 In this process, the original constituent minerals which are unstable under the changed
conditions are converted into new ones which are more stable under the changed
conditions.
 These minerals are arranged in a manner which is more suitable to new environments.
 There are 3 agents of metamorphism, - heat, pressure and chemically acting fluids.
 The heat may be supplied by the general rise of temperature with depth or by magma.
 The pressure may be developed due to load of rocks or movement of the earth.
 The chemically acting fluids play a passive role only and they do not take active part in
the process of metamorphism.

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 PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL
 PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION OF
 This classification is based on general structure of rocks. ROCKS
 According to this classification, the rocks are of the following three types:
Stratified These rocks possess planes of stratification or cleavage and such rocks can easily be
split up along these planes. The sedimentary rocks are distinctly stratified rocks.
Rocks
Unstratified These rocks are unstratified. The structure may be crystalline granular or compact
granular. The igneous rocks of volcanic agency and sedimentary rocks affected by
Rocks
movements of the earth are of this type of rocks.

Foliated These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite direction only. The foliated
structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.
Rocks
 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
 This classification is known as scientific or Engineering classification.
Silicious In these rocks silica predominates. The rocks are hard & durable. They are not
affected by the weathering agencies. The silica however in combination of weaker
Rocks
minerals may disintegrate easily. It is therefore necessary that these rocks should
contain maximum amount of free silica for making them hard & durable.
The granites, quatzites are examples of silicious rocks.
Argillaceous In these rocks, the argil or clay predominates. Such rocks may be dense and
compact or they may be soft. These stones are hard and durbale but brittle. The
Rocks
slates, laterites are examples of the silicious rocks.

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 PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL
 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION OF
Calcareous ROCKS
In these rocks, the calcium carbonate predominates. The durability of these rocks
will depend upon the constituents present in the surrounding atmosphere. The
Rocks
limestones, marbles etc. are examples of calcareous rocks.

 NATURAL BED OF STONES

 The building stones are obtained from rocks and these rocks have a distinct plane of
division along which stones can easily be split.
 This plane is known as the natural bed of stone and it thus indicates the plane or bed
on which the sedimentary stone was originally deposited.
 The natural bed of stone need not necessarily be horizontal.
 For sedimentary rocks, it is easy to observe and locate the natural bed as it lies along
the planes of stratification.
 For igneous rocks, the natural bed is of little significance or importance and it is also
difficult to determine.
 The general rule to be observed is that the direction of natural bed of all sedimentary
stones should be perpendicular or nearly so to the direction of pressure.
 Such an arrangement gives maximum strength to the stonework.
 It can be detected by pouring water and examining the directions of layers.
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 Magnifying glass may also be used for this purpose.
 BUILDING STONES
List of building stones commonly used in construction industry along with classification,
characteristics, uses:
S.No Stone Classification Characteristics/ Suitability / Uses
properties/qualities
1 Granite Igneous Hard, durable and available in different Steps, sills, facing work,
colors. walls, bridge piers, road
Highly resistant to natural forces. metal etc.
Fine grained variety takes high polish It is unsuitable for
Sp.Gr. 2.6-2.7 carving works.
Compressive strength 75-127N/mm.sq
Weight is about 26 – 27KN per cu.m
Water absorption<1%
2 Trap and Basalt Igneous Hard and tough. Road metal, for rubble
(green stone, Not easy to work with masonry, foundation
white stone, work etc. Its red and
Sp.Gr. 3
blue basalt) yellow varieties are
Compressive strength 150-185N/mm.sq used for decorative
Weight is about 18 – 29KN per cu.m features in structures.
3 Chalk Sedimentary Pure white lime stone; soft and easy to In preparing glazier’s
form powder. putty; as colouring
material in manufacture
of portland cememt

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 BUILDING STONES
S.No Stone Classification Characteristics/ Suitability / Uses
properties/qualities
4 Limestone Sedimentary Consists of carbonate of lime. Floors, steps, walls,
Affected by frost and atmosphere. road metal,
Tough but soft enough to be cut manufacture of lime in
blast furnaces etc.
Easy to work.
Sp.Gr. 2.0-2.75
Compressive strength 54N/mm.sq
5 Sandstone Sedimentary Consists of quartz and other minerals. Paving stone, steps,
Weathers well when free from lime & flooring, facing work,
iron walls, columns, road
metal, ornamental
Easy to work and dress
carving etc.
Sp.Gr. 2.65 – 2.95
Compressive strength 64N/mm.sq
Weight is about 20-22KN per cu.m
6 Marble Metamorphic Can take good polish and available in Flooring, facing work,
different colours. columns, steps,
Sufficiently hard and compact. ornamental work etc. it
can easily be sawn and
Sp Gr 2.65
curved. Most suitable
Compressive strength – 71 N/mm.sq. for monuments.

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 BUILDING STONES
S.No Stone Classification Characteristics/ Suitability / Uses
properties/qualities
7 Quartzite Metamorphic Hard, brittle and compact Retaining walls, road
Difficult to work and dress metals, concrete
aggregate, etc.
8 Laterite (Sandy Metamorphic Porous and spongy structure Rough stone masonry
clay stone) Available in different colours. work, road metal.
Easy to work with
Compressive strength 1.80-3.10N/mm.sq
9 Mooram Metamorphic Decomposed Laterite. Surfacing fancy paths in
Deep brown or red in colour. gardens and bungalows.
10 Gneiss Metamorphic Strong and durable Rough stone masonry
Can be split into thin slabs; easy to work work, street paving etc.
Sp.Gr. 2.69
Compressive strength 206N/mm.sq
11 Kankar Sedimentary Impure lime stone; Road metal and
irregular in shape; manufacture of
hydraulic lime.

12 Slate Metamorphic Black colour; splits along natural bedding Roofing work, sills,
planes; non-absorbent damp-proof, partitions
Sp.Gr. 2.89 etc.
Compressive strength 75 – 207 N/mm.sq
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Stones for the specific Uses:
S.No Type of Work
1 Heavy Engineering
work such as bridges,
piers, retaining walls,
etc
2 Building facing the sea
3 Buildings in Industrial
area
4 Arches
5 Building face work,
carved works,
ornamental works
6 Fire resisting structure
7 Road metal
8 Railways
9 Electrical Areas
BUILDING STONES
Recommended Stone Reasons
Type
Granites It is heavy strong and durable. It is capable of
resisting large thrust.
Granite, fine grained sand These stones are not affected by the
stone weathering action of sand particles blown by
wind.
Granite, compact sand These are restraint to acid fumes and smoke.
stone
Fine grained sandstone Strong and durable
Marble, close grained sand These are light weight, soft and easy to work
stone and fine grained and have pleasing colour and appearance. It
granite takes high polish.
Compact sand stone Fire proof
Granite, Basalt, Quartzite Hard, tough and has high abrasion resistance
Coarse grained sandstone, These are hard and compact
quatzite
Slate, marble, coarse Poor conductor of electricity.
grained sandstone
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 TESTS FOR STONES
 ACID TEST
 Sample of stone weighing about 0.50 – 1.00N is taken.
 It is placed in a solution of hydrochloric acid having strength of 1% and it is kept there
for seven days.
 The solution is agitated at intervals.
 A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface free from powder
at the end of this period.
 If the edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it indicates the presence
of calcium carbonate and such a stone will have poor weathering quality.
 This test is carried out on the sandstone.
 ATTRITION TEST
 This test is done to find out the rate of wear of stones which are used in road
construction.
 The results of test indicate the resisting power of stones against the grinding action
under traffic.
 The sample of stone is broken into pieces of about 60mm size
 Such pieces weighing 50N are put in both the cylinders of attrition test machine.
The diameter and length of the cylinder are 200mm and 340mm respectively.
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 TESTS FOR STONES
 ATTRITION TEST (contd)
 The cylinders are closed. Their axes make an angle of 30* with horizontal
 The cylinders are rotated about horizontal axis for 5 hours at the rate of 30 R.P.M
 After this period, the contents are taken out from the cylinders and they are passed
through a sieve of 1.50mm mesh.
 The quantity of material which is retained on the sieve is weighed.
 The percentage wear is worked out as follows:
 Percentage wear = (Loss in weight/initial weight) X 100
 CRUSHING TEST
 The compressive strength of stone is found out with the help of this test.
 The sample of stone is cut into cubes of size 40mmx40mmx40mm. The sides of cubes
are finely dressed and finished.
 The minimum no. of specimens to be tested is 3.
 Such specimen should be placed in water for about 72 hrs prior to test and thereafter
tested in saturated condition.
 The load-bearing surface is then covered with POP or 5mm thick plywood. The load is
axially applied on the cube in a crushing test machine.
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 TESTS FOR STONES
 The rate of loading is 13.72N/sq.mm per minute.
 The crushing strength of the stone per unit area is the maximum load at which its
sample crushes or fails divided by the area if the bearing face of the specimen.
 CRYSTALLISATION TEST
 4 cubes of stone with side as 40mm are taken.
 They are dried for 72 hrs and weighed. They are then immersed in 14% solution of
sodium sulphuric acid for 2 hours.
 They are dried at 100*C and weighed. The difference in weight is noted.
 This procedure of drying, weighing, immersing and reweighing is repeated at least 5
times.
 Each time, the change in weight is noted and it is expressed as a percentage of original
weight.

 FREEZING AND THAWING TEST

 The specimen of stone is kept immersed in water for 24 hrs.
 It is then placed in a freezing mixture at -12*C for 24 hrs.
 It is then thawed or warmed at atmospheric temperature.
 This should be done in shade to prevent any effect due to wind, sun rays, rain, etc.

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Such a procedure is repeated several times and behaviour of stone is carefully
 TESTS FOR STONES
 HARDNESS TEST
 To determine the hardness of a stone.
 A cylinder of dia 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from the sample of stone.
 It is weighed.
 It is placed in Dorry’s testing machine and pressed with a pressure of 12.50N
 The annular steel disc of machine is then rotated at a speed of 28 R.P.M.
 During the rotation of disc, the coarse sand of standard specification is sprinkled on
the top of disc.
 After 1000 revolutions, the specimen is taken out and weighed.
 The coefficient of hardness is found out from the following equation:
 Coefficient of hardness = 20 – (loss in weight in gm / 3)

 IMPACT TEST
 To determine the toughness of a stone, the impact test is carried out in page impact
machine as follows:
 A cylinder of dia 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from the sample of stone.
 It is placed on cast-iron anvil of machine

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A steel hammer of weight 20 N is allowed to fall axially in a vertical direction over the
 TESTS FOR STONES
 IMPACT TEST (contd)
 The height of first blow is 1cm; that of second blow is 2 cm; that of third blow is 3 cm;
and so on.
 The blow at which specimen breaks is noted. If it is nth blow, n represents the
toughness index of stone.

 MICROSCOPIC TEST
 The sample of stone is subjected to the microscopic examination. The thin sections of
stone are taken and placed under the microscope to study various properties such as:
 Average grain size
 Existence of pores, fissures, veins and shakes;
 Mineral constituents;
 Nature of cementing material;
 Presence of any harmful substance;
 Texture of stone; etc.

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 TESTS FOR STONES
 SMITH TEST
 This test is to find out the presence of soluble matter in a sample of stone
 The few chips or pieces of stones are taken and they are placed in a glass tube.
 This tube is then filled with clear water. After about an hour, the tube is vigorously
stirred or shaken.
 The presence of earthy matter will convert the clear water into dirty water.
 If water remains clear, the stone will be durable and free from any soluble matter.
 On the other hand, if the water becomes dirty, it will indicate that the stone contains
too much of soluble earthy and mineral matters.
 WATER ABSORPTION TEST
 From the given sample of stone, a cube weighing about 0.50N is prepared. Its actual
weight is recorded. Let it be W1N
 The cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hours.
 The cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth.
 It is weighed again. Let its weight be W2N.
 The cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded. Let it be W3N.
 The water is boiled and cube is kept in boiling water for five hours.
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 TESTS FOR STONES
 WATER ABSORPTION TEST (contd)
 It is then removed and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth. Its weight is
recorded. Let it be W4N.
 From the above data, the values of the following properties of stone are obtained:
 Percentage absorption by weight after 24 hrs = (W2 –W1/W1) x 100
 Percentage absorption by volume after 24 hrs = (W2-W1/W2-W3) x 100
 Volume of displaced water = W2-W3

 Percentage porosity by volume = (W4 –W1/W2 –W3) x 100

 Density = (W1/W2-W3) N/cu.m
 Specific Gravity = (W1/W2-W3)
 Saturation coefficient = water absorption / total porosity
= (W2-W1/W4-W1)

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 QUALITIES OF
 APPEARANCE GOOD BUILDING STONE
 For face work it should have fine and compact texture
 Uniform colour and free from clay holes, spots of other colours, bands etc.
 Should be capable of preserving their colour uniformly for a long time.
 Light coloured stones are preferred for face work as dark colours are likely to fade out
in due course of time by the action or attack of weathering agents.
 STRENGTH
 A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating action of weather
 Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between 60 – 200 N/sq.mm.
 STRUCTURE / TEXTURE
 A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have uniform texture free
from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material
 Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye.
 FRACTURE
 It should be sharp, even, bright and clear with grains well cemented together.
 A dull chalky and earthly fracture of a stone indicates signs of early future decay.

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 QUALITIES OF
 DURABILITY GOOD BUILDING STONE
 The various factors affecting the durability of stone are its chemical composition,
texture, resistance to atmospheric and other influences, location in structure etc.
 Following are the important atmospheric agencies which affect the durability:
 Alternate conditions of heat and cold due to differences in temperature
 Alternate conditions of wetness and dryness due to rain and sunshine
 Chemical agencies such as dissolved gases in rain
 Growth of trees and creepers in the joints between stones
 Wind with high velocity etc.

 FACILITY OF DRESSING
 The stones should be such that they can be carved easily, moulded, cut and dressed.
 This property is opposed to its strength, durability and hardness.
 Hence it is to be properly correlated with respect to the situation in which the stone is
to be used

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 QUALITIES OF
 HARDNESS GOOD BUILDING STONE
 The coefficient of hardness should be greater than 17 for a stone to used in road work
 If it is between 14 and 17, the stone is said to be of medium hardness and
 If it is less than 14, it is of poor hardness and stone should not be used in road works.
 TOUGHNESS
 If the value of toughness index comes below 13, the stone is not tough
 If it comes between 13 and 19, the stone is said to be moderately tough.
 If it exceeds 19, the toughness of stone is said to be high.
 WATER ABSORPTION
 For a good stone, the percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours should not
exceed 0.60.
 Porous stones disintegrates as the absorbed rain water freezes, expands and causes
cracking.
 SEASONING
 Stones quarried freshly are easy to work and it is desirable to do dressing, carving etc.
 The stones should be dried or seasoned before they are used in structural work.
 A period of about 6 to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning
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 QUALITIES OF
 WEATHERING GOOD BUILDING STONE
 The resistance of stone against the wear and dear due to natural agencies should be
high.
 RESISTANCE TO FIRE
 The minerals composing stone should be such that the shape of stone is preserved
when a fire occurs.
 The limestone resists fire upto about 800*C
 The Sandstones with silicates as binding material can resist fire in better way.
 Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having
different thermal coefficients.
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 For a good building stones, its specific gravity should be greater than 2.7or so.

It should be remembered that one kind of stone is not suitable in all types of construction.
It is therefore necessary to study carefully the situation in which stones are to be used before
any recommendation is made.

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 USES OF BUILDING
 STRUCTURE STONES
 The stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors,
damp-proof courses etc.
 FACE-WORK
 The stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure.
 The walls are of bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as
composite Masonry.
 PAVING
 The stones are used to cover floor of buildings of various types such as residential,
commercial, industrial, etc.
 They are also adopted to form paving of roads, foot paths, etc.
 BASIC MATERIALS
 The stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement
concrete, murum of roads, calcareous cements, hollow blocks, etc.
 MISCELLANEOUS
 Ballast for railways
 Flux in blast furnaces, construction of bridges, piers, retaining walls, light houses, etc.
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 DETERIORATION OF STONES
 ALTERNATE WETNESS AND DRYING
 The stones are made wet by various agencies such as rain, frost, dew etc. such wet
surface is dried by sunshine. It is found that stones subjected to such alternate
wetness and drying wear out quickly.
 FROST
 In cold places frost pierces the pores of the stones where it freezes, expands and
creates cracks.
 ATMOSPHERIC IMPURITIES
 The acids and fumes are predominant in industrial town. These impurities act on
carbonate of lime and cause the deterioration of stone.
 LIVING ORGANISMS
 Some living organisms like worms and bacteria act upon stones and deteriorate them.
 These organisms make holes in stones and weaken them. They also secrete organic
acids which have a corrosive action on stone materials.
 MUTUAL DECAY
 When different types of stones are used together mutual decay takes place. For
example when the sandstone is used under the limestone, the chemicals brought down
from limestone by rain to the sandstone will deteriorate it.
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 DETERIORATION OF STONES
 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS
 Expansion and Contraction due to frequent temperature changes cause stone to
deteriorate.
 VEGETABLE GROWTH
 The creepers and certain trees develop on stone surface with their roots in joints
between stones.
 Such roots attract moisture and keep the stone surface damp.
 At the same time, they try to expand. Such actions accelerate the decay of stones.
 WIND
 Since wind carries dust particles, the abrasion caused by them deteriorates the stones.
 NATURE OF MORTAR
 Binding material in stone masonry may react chemically with any one of the
constituents of stones and thus it may lead to the disintegration of stones.
 RAIN WATER
 The action of rain water on stones is two fold physical and chemical.
 Alternate wetness and drying result in the disintegration of stone – Physical
 Gases in the atmosphere act adversely on stones and cause decay - Chemical
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 PRESERVATION OF STONES
 Following precautions should be taken to retard the decaying of stones.
 Compact Silicious Stones:
 Only compact silicious stones can be used and Limestones or calcareous sandstones
with open texture should be avoided for the external surfaces in industrial towns.
 External Renderings:
 The external renderings such as pointing or plastering should be given to the stone
surface at the time of construction.
 Joints:
 All the joints in the stone masonry should be completely filled in so as to have a sound
and solid structure without hollows or cavities.
 Natural Beds:
 The stones should be placed in position on their natural beds.
 Qualities of Stones:
 The use of finished, polished & dressed stones should be preferred to rough stones.
 Seasoned Stones:
 The stones should be seasoned sufficiently by exposing them before they are placed.
 Size of Stones:
 Employ large size stones to minimize the no. of joints which are signs of weakness.
 Washing with Water:

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The exposed stone should be kept as clean and it should be washed with water at
regular intervals.
 PRESERVATION OF STONES
 The decay of building stones of inferior quality is to some extent prevented, if they are
properly preserved.
 For this purpose, the preservatives or applied on the stone surfaces.
 An ideal preservative has the following properties
 It does not allow moisture to penetrate the stone surface
 It does not develop objectionable colour
 It hardens sufficiently so as to resist effects due to various atmospheric agents
 It is easily penetrated in stone surface
 It is economical
 It is non-corrosive and harmless
 It remains effective for a long time after drying
 Its application on stone surface is easy.
It should be remembered that there is not a single preservative which is suitable for all
types of stones. The choice of a preservative therefore requires careful consideration.
Depending upon the chemical composition of stones and their location in structure, a
particular preservative should be recommended
Linseed Oil, Paint, Paraffin, Solution of alum and soap, Solution of baryta
are some of the preservatives used
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 DRESSING AND FINISHES OF
 DRESSING OF STONES STONES
 The stones, after being quarried are to be cut into suitable sizes and with suitable
surfaces.
 This process is known as the dressing of stones and it is carried out for the following
purposes:
 To get the desired appearance from stone work,
 To make the transport from quarry easy and economical,
 To suit to the requirements of stone masonry
 To take advantage of local men near quarry etc.
 The stones are roughly dressed at quarry site to secure the following advantages.
 It is possible to get cheap labour for the process of dressing of stones
 It is possible to sort out stones for different works,
 The irregular and rough portions of the stones are removed which decrease the
weight of stone and it also facilitates easy transportation of the stones.
 The natural bed surface of stones can be made prominent during the quarry
dressing
 The stones when quarried freshly contain the quarry sap and hence they are
comparatively soft and can be easily dressed.
STONE
 DRESSING AND FINISHES OF
 FINISHES OF STONES STONES
 Axed Finish:
 The surface of the hard stones such as granites are dressed by means of axe. Such a
finish is termed as an axed finish.
 Boasted or droved Finish:
 The boaster is used to make non-continuous parallel marks on the stone surface. A
boaster is a chisel having an edge of width about 60mm.
 Chisel draughted Margins:
 To obtain uniform joints in stone work, the margins are placed which may be either
squared or pitched or chamfered.
 Circular Finish:
 The surface of stone is made round or circular as in case of column.
 Dragged or Combed Finish:
 A drag or comb which is a piece of steel with a no. of teeth is rubbed on the surface in
all directions. This finish is suitable for soft stones only.
 Furrowed Finish:
 A margin of about 20mm width, is sunk on all the edges of stone and the central
portion is made to project about 15mm. A no. of horizontal or vertical grooves about
10mm wide are formed in this projected portion.
STONE
 DRESSING AND FINISHES OF
 Moulded Finish: STONES
 The surface of stone can be moulded in any desired shape so as to improve the
appearance of the work. The mouldings can be either by hand or machine.
 Hammer-dressed Finish:
 The stones are made roughly square or rectangular by means of a waller’s hammer.
 Plain Finish:
 The surface of the stone is made approximately smooth with a saw or with a chisel.
 Polished Finish:
 The surface of the stones such as marbles, granites, etc. can be polished either with
hand or with machine.
 Punched Machine:
 The depressions are made by using a punch.
 Rubbed Finish:
 Rubbing a piece of stone with the surface or by rubbing the surface with the help of a
suitable machine. The water & sand are freely used to accelerate the rubbing process.
 Scabbling Finish:
 Irregular projections are removed with a scabbling hammer and in this way, the stones
are roughly dressed.
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 ARTIFICIAL STONES
 These are also known as the cast stones or reconstructed stones.
The natural stone is crushed into sizes less than 6mm
The stone dust is removed.
A mixture of 1 ½ parts of stones of size 3 mm to 6 mm, 1 ½ parts of stones of size less than 3
mm and 1 part of cement by volume is prepared.
The necessary pigment to produce the desired colour effect is added to the above mixture.
Its proportion should not exceed 15 % of cement by weight.
The water in required quantity is added and thorough mixing of materials is done.
The mixture thus prepared is transferred to specially constructed moulds.
It is allowed to harden and its surface is kept wet. The artificial stone is then ready in block
form.
The polishing is done, if required.
The white cement may be used in place of ordinary cement to produce colour of light shade.
 Forms of artificial stones:
 The artificial stones may take up various forms as follows:
 Cement Concrete – this is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
and water. It may be cast-in-situ or pre-cast. It is widely used at present. If steel
is used with cement concrete, it is known as reinforced cement concrete.
STONE
 ARTIFICIAL STONES
 Forms of artificial stones:
 Mosaic Tiles – the pre-cast concrete tiles with marble chips at top surface are known as
mosaic tiles. They are available in different shades and are widely adopted at present.
 Terrazo – this is a mixture of marble chips and cement. It is used for bath rooms,
residential buildings, temples etc.

 Advantages of artificial stones:

 Cavities may be kept in artificial stones. These cavities are used to convey pipes,
electric wires etc.
 The grooves can be kept in an artificial stone, while it is being cast. These grooves are
useful for fixing various fittings.
 It can be cast in desired shape to suit the architectural requirements
 It can be made in a single piece and hence the trouble of getting large blocks of stones
for lintel, beams etc is avoided.
 It can be made stronger than natural stone.
 It is cheap and economical as stones of smaller sizes are profitably consumed.
 It is equally good in resisting deterioration and disintegration caused by various
atmospheric agencies like rain, frost etc.
 It is more durable than natural stone. STONE
THANK YOU

STONE