5

CULTIVATION, COLLECTION,
PROCESSING AND STORAGE OF
HERBAL DRUGS
 Raw
Wild Material for Cultivated
Species Herbal Species
Drugs
 Advantages of Cultivation

1. It ensures Quality and Purity of Medicinal plants.

2. Collection of Crude drugs from cultivated plants give
Better yield and Therapeutic quality. But requires
skilled person.
3. Ensures regular Supply of crude drugs.
4. Leads to Industrialization (e.g. Tea and Poppy).
5. Permits application of Modern Technological aspects,
like Mutation, Polyploidy & Hybridization.
Disadvantages of cultivation:

• consume time and labour

• high coast as compared to wild source
• losses due to earthquake, flood etc..
• pesticidal residues
Factors affecting Cultivation of Medicinal Plants

Factors

Extrinsic Intrinsic
 I. Extrinsic Factors

1. Altitude & Latitude 5. Fertilizers and Manure

2. Temperature 6. Climate
3. Water 7. Wind
(A) Rainfall 8. Light
& Irrigation 9. Length of Day
(B) Atmospheric or 10. Propagation
Relative Humidity 11. Biotic Factors: Pests,
4. Edaphic Factor: Soil & Weeds, etc.
Soil Fertility 12. Allelopathy
II. Intrinsic Factors

1. Mutation
2. Polyploidy
3. Hybridization
4. Chemical Races (Chemodemes)
5. Plant Growth Regulators
 I.
Extrinsic Factors
1. ALTITUDE & LATITUDE
1. ALTITUDE & LATITUDE
 Tea, Cinchona and Eucalyptus are cultivated at an altitude of
1000-2000 m, While Senna can be cultivated at sea level.

 In case of Cinchona succirubra, the plants grow well at low

levels but produce practically no alkaloids.

 The bitter constituents of Gentiana lutea increase with altitude,

whereas the alkaloids of Aconitum napellus and Lobelia inflata
and the oil content of Thyme and Peppermint decrease. Other oil
producing plants may reach a maximum at certain altitudes.

 Pyrethrum gives the best yields of flower-heads and pyrethrins at

high altitudes, on or near the equator. It is therefore produced in
East Africa and South America.
Examples of medicinal and aromatic plants indicating the altitude for their
successful cultivation:

Plant Altitude for Drug Cultivation (meters)

Tea 1000-1500
Coffee 1000-2000
Cinchona 1000-2000
Camphor 1500-2000
Cardamom 600-1600
Cinnamon 250-1000
Saffron upto 1250
Clove upto 900
2. TEMPERATURE
2. TEMPERATURE

• Major factor controlling the development and

metabolism of plants.
• Although each species has become adapted to its own
natural environment, plants are frequently able to exist in
a considerable range of temperature.
• Excessive temperature, as well as, frost also affects
quality of medicinal plants adversely.
E.g.

 Camphor and Coffee cannot withstand frost.

 Saffron needs only cold climate and Pyrethrum requires dry
weather for cultivation.
 The mean optimum temperature for Nicotine production in
Nicotiana rustica is 20o C (lower at 11-12oC and at 30oC).
 Formation of Volatile oils appear to be enhanced at higher
temperatures, although very hot days may lead to an excess
physical loss of oil.
 Fixed oils produced at low temperatures contain fatty acids with a
higher content of double bonds than those formed at higher
temperatures.
Examples of ranges of temperature necessary for luxuriant
growth of certain medicinal plants:

Optimum temperature of drug

Plant
cultivation (0F)
Tea 70-90
Coffee 55-70
Cinchona 60-75
3. WATER
3. WATER

• Paramount requirement in the physiology of plant.

• Universal Solvent: Dissolves all the mineral content
in soil & acts as a medium by which solutes enter the
plant.
• Raw material in Photosynthesis.
• Maintains temperature & affects the rate of
biochemical reactions.
 Sources of Water:

1. Rainfall or Irrigation
2. Atmospheric moisture of Relative Humidity.

(A) Rainfall or Irrigation:

Important effects of rainfall on vegetation must be
considered in relation to:
• annual rainfall
• its distribution throughout the year.
• effect on humidity
• effect on water holding properties of the soil.
E.g.
Variable results : Production of volatile oils under different
conditions of rainfall and sometimes coupled with the development
of glandular hairs.

Ginger : requires heavy rainfall.

Senna: cannot tolerate heavy rainfall.
Cardamom: 150-600 cm.
Cinnamon: 200-300 cm.

Continuous rain can lead to a loss of water soluble substances from

leaves and roots by leaching [e.g. in some plants producing
alkaloids (esp. of Solanaceae family), glycosides and volatile oils].
This could account for low yields of some active constituents in
wet seasons from plants whose general condition appears to be
good.
Except the Xerophytic plants like Aloe, Acacia, etc., most of the
plants need either proper arrangements for irrigation or sufficient
rainfall for their favourable development.

E.g.
With Cassia angustifolia (Tinnevelly senna),
Short term drought increases concentration of Sennosides A & B,
but in the longer term causes loss of leaf biomass.
(B) Atmospheric moisture or Relative Humidity

• Invisible water vapour content of the air is usually

expressed as Relative Humidity.
• As RH increases : Rate of Evaporation (Transpiration)
decreases (the vapor pressure between the atmosphere
and moist surface is lowered).
• E.g. Some desert plants take water directly from the air
when relative humidity rises above 85%.
4. EDAPHIC FACTORS:
SOIL & SOIL FERTILITY
4. EDAPHIC FACTORS: SOIL & SOIL FERTILITY

Defn: Soil is the superficial layer of the earth crust and

typically made up of Minerals, Organic materials as well as
Living organisms.

Soil consists of minerals, air, water and organic matter:

It is the mineral matter, which makes a lot of difference in
various forms of soil. Mineral matter may be coarse gravel,
coarse sand or in the form of finest particles of clay and slit.
Air and water give rise to pores.
Decayed plant and animal parts constitute the organic matter.
Clay is one of the highly weathered portions of the soil,
consisting of finest particles.
This provides the soil adhesive and cohesive properties
and also holds plant nutrients with the result that
nutrients are not lost through leaching.

Soil fertility: The capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients

in quantities and proportions required and to
provide a suitable medium for plant growth is
known as soil fertility.
Functions:

 Soil is the most important natural resource as it

supports growth of all plants. Soil provides:
1. Mechanical anchorage
2. Water and
3. Essential plant Food elements.

 Plants absorbs minerals from the soil and convert

them in to the complex organic compounds such as
cellulose, lignin, starch, sugar, fat and proteins.
 Plants and soil are strongly influenced by each other.

Plant growth depends upon:

o Nature of soil particles

o Physical arrangement of soil particles
o Organic matter content of soil and
o Living organisms in soil.
 Types of Soils

I. Depending upon the size of mineral matter (soil particles):

Type of soil Particle size (diameter)

1 Fine clay Less than 0.002 mm
2 Coarse clay or silt 0.002 to 0.02 mm
3 Fine sand 0.02 to 0.2 mm
4 Coarse sand 0.2 to 2.00 mm
II. Depending upon the percentage of soil covered by clay :

Type of soil Percentage of Clay

1 Clay
2 Loamy
3 Silt loam
4 Sandy loam
5 Sandy soil
Calcareous soil
More than 50% of clay
30 to 50% of clay
20 to 30% of clay
10 to 20% of clay
More than 70% sandy soil
More than 20% of lime
III. Depending upon the percentage of organic matter in soil:

Type of soil Percentage of Organic Matter

1 Rich More than 1.5%, upto 5%

2 Intermediate 0.5% to 1.5%
3 Poor Less than 0.5%
IV. Other types of Soils:

Type of soil Content Characteristic

1 Calcareous Lime (CaCO3) White

2 Laterite Fe, Al2O3 Reddish-brown to Yellow

3 Plat 80-90% Humus Dark, Porous & Light

 Properties of Soils

A. Physical Properties : “Particle size”

• Variation in particle size results in different types of soil,

ranging from clay via sand to gravel.
• Particle size is one factor influencing Water-holding
capacity.
Some plants (e.g. Althaea officinalis) which produce
mucilage as a water retaining material contain less
mucilage when grown on soil with a high moisture
content.
• Water holding capacity of soil :
 Rainfall on coarse soil – penetrates almost immediately –
so that none is lost as runoff.
 The rate of infiltration of water in to a heavy soil is very
slow because runoff is greater there.

• Relative resistance To root penetration:

Soil with high silt and clay retard the growth of root.

Basic soil type is modified by presence of Humus, Organic

fertilizers, Chalk, Lime, etc.
Fine soil is rich in humus.
B. Chemical Properties :

“pH of Soil”

 pH of soil decides favorable growth of plants and presence

of microorganisms.

 The maximum availability of plant nutrients is in the pH

range of 6.5 to 7.5.

 To bring the pH to Neutral :

Acidic soils can be limed or
Alkaline soils can be reclaimed by application of gypsum.
E.g.,
Tobacco, Cinchona, Tea and Potato grow well only in acidic soils.

Acidic soils are not suitable for leguminous plants due to poor
development of nodular bacteria. So, Groundnut, Sunflower,
Cotton and Rice grow better in alkaline soils only.

Acidic pH solubilizes more iron.

In Alkaline soils, phosphorus is converted to insoluble forms of
calcium phosphate and so it can not be made available to plants.

Particular species have their own soil pH tolerance.

E.g., Datura stramonium 6.0-8.2
“Nutrients of Soil” : Inorganic & Organic
For vegetative growth

Nutrients

Primary Secondary

N,P&K Mg, Ca, S

Trace elements: Cu, Fe, Na, Cl, Mn, B, Mb, Zn

E.g. Trace amount of Mg is necessary for successful production of

Digitalis purpurea.
C. Microbiological Properties :

Rhizobium bacteria helps in Nitrogen Fixation.

Production of growth stimulating substances,

Improvement of soil aeration.

Decay and nutrient cycle.

Agrobacterium are finding application in production of Hairy

root culture.
Soil fertility :

It is the capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate

amounts and in balanced proportion to the plant.

If cropping is done without fortification of soil with plant

nutrients, soil fertility gets lost.

It is also diminished through leaching and erosion.

Soil fertility can be maintained by addition of animal manure

or by application of chemical fertilizers.
5. Fertilizers
5. Fertilizers :

Chemical compounds given to plants to promote growth;

Usually, applied through the soil for uptake by plant roots.

Basic needs for growth and development of plant are

• Water
Secondary
• Mineral matters Primary
Metabolites, like
• carbon-dioxide metabolites, like Alkaloids
Glycosides
• sunlight sugar, proteins
Volatile oils
and fixed oils Resin
 FERTILIZERS

Chemical fertilizers Manures Biofertilizers

a. Chemical fertilizers :

Primary nutrients like N , P & K.

Secondary nutrients are Mg, Ca, S etc..

Trace elements required are Cu, Mg, Fe, B, Mb, Zn etc.(Micronutrients )

E.g . Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium nitrate, Urea, Superphosphates,

etc…
b. Manures :

Farm Yard Manure, Castor seed cake, Neem and Karanj seed cake,
etc…

c. Biofertilizers :

Consist of different types of micro-organisms or lower organisms

which fix the atmospheric nitrogen into soil and plant can use them.

E.g. Rhizobium, Azobacter, etc.

6. Climate
6. Climate

Climate : Tropical , Sub-tropical and Temperate.

Cultivation of medicinal plants in climate different from that of their

natural habitats presents several problems. E.g. Astragalus
species which yields Tragacanth gum ceases to produce gum
when transferred to Northern region.

But many a times some species grow and develop satisfactory under
new climatic conditions. E.g. Papaver.

E.g. Digitalis produces higher content of glycosides when cultivated

in Himalaya than the original plants grown in Germany.
7. Wind
7. Wind

Important ecological factor.

Affects plant directly by:

• Pollination
• Increase transpiration (Modifies Humidity)
• Cause Mechanical Injury: Drives dust, snow & cause
abrasive effect on plants.
• Distributes weeds
• Source of many diseases like rust.
8. Light
8. Light
Development of plants vary in amount and intensity they require.

The wild grown plants meet the required conditions & so they grows
well . But during cultivation we have to fulfill those
requirements.

In cloudy weather, amount of carbohydrates produced in leaf

decreases since photosynthesis is light dependent.

E.g. Belladonna, Datura stramonium and Cinchona give higher

content of alkaloids in full sunshine.

Leaves of Belladonna grown in sunshine contain 3-4 times more

alkaloids than the plant grown in shade.
9. Length of Day
10. Propagation
 PROPAGATION
Sexual Asexual / Vegetative
(Through Seeds) (Through other vegetative parts)

E.g. Senna E.g. Bulb - Garlic

Jalap Corms - Saffron
Tubers – Potato, Dioscorea
Seedlings are long-lived. Rhizomes - Ginger
Cheeper & comparativelySucker
easy to- raise.
Mint

Disease-resistant variety can be obtained.

Seedless fruits can be prpagated vegetatively.
11. Biotic Factors:
Pests & Pest Control
11. Pests and pest control :
PEST : Any undesirable plant or animal species.

PESTICIDES : Chemicals of synthetic or natural origin, which are effective in

small concentration and used to control pests.

Pest types :

12. Insects : Flea beetle, Odontotermis , Phytomyza are insects which attack
Mentha species. Other insects are caterpillar larvae, termites, aphids, grass
hopper, mites, etc.

2. Weeds : Undesired plant.

3. Non-insects pests :
• Vertebrates : like rats, monkeys, birds, rabbit etc…
• Invertebrates : like crabs, snails, nematodes etc..
4. Viruses and fungi :
Methods of pest control

a. Mechanical method: Manual labour along with different devices

for collection and destruction of pest.
E.g., hand picking, burning, trapping of pests.

b. Agricultural method:

• Advanced plant breeding technique capable of inducing

genetic manipulation resulting in production of pest resistant
species.

• Ploughing - Which should be sufficiently deep so as to

eradicate weeds and early stages of insects.
c. Biological control :

• Combating the pest (esp. insects) with other living

organisms (mostly parasites).

• “Sex Pheromones” : chemical substances produced &

released by some insects, which affect the behaviour of
other animals. E.g., 7,8-epoxy-2-methyloctadecane from
Gypsy-moth.

• Australian lady beetle ‘lady bug’ feed on damaging insects

called cottony cushion scale insect on Citrus crop.
d. Chemical control :

Use of chemicals: insecticides, pesticides, fungicides, herbicides,

rodenticides, etc.

 Rodenticide : Warfarin

 Insecticide : D.D.T., Gamaxine, Parathione, Malathione,

Pyrethroids, Rotenoids.

 Fungicides : Quarternary ammonium compounds.

 Herbicides : 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid.

12. Allelopathy
12. Allelopathy

The term allelopathy denotes the production of specific

biomolecules by one plant that can harm, or give benefit to,
another plant.

Allelopathy is a chemical process that a plant uses to keep other

plants out of its space. Allelopathic plants and plant material
restrict germination or growth of other plants through releasing
chemicals.

Healthier herbicides and pesticides kill specific unwanted plants

and insects, but not kill the plants we want.
1) Leptospermone is a purported allelochemical in lemon
bottlebrush (Callistemon citrinus).
It was found to be too weak herbicide.
However, a chemical analog of leptospermone (mesotrione,
tradename Callisto) was found to be an effective herbicide to
control broadleaf weeds in corn but also seems to be an effective
control for crabgrass in lawns.

2) Eucalyptus leaf & root exudates are allelopathic for certain soil
microbes and plant species.

3) The tree of heaven, (Ailanthus altissima) produces allelopathic

substances in its roots that inhibit the growth of many plants.