Duct propagation or super refraction

 Using this method of propagtion , long distance

communication with relatively lesser attenuation is
possible in the frequency range of 300MHz to
30,000MHz .ie VHF and UHF bands.
 Normally the temperature of the atmosphere falls
at the rate of 6.5oC/ km.
 A normal or standard atmosphere is one where the
dielectric cont.is assumed to decrease uniformly with
height to a value of unity at a height where air density
becomes zero.
 Near the earth surface, refractive index is greater
than unity.
 Duct propagation or super refraction
 A temperature inversion layer is formed
where the temp. increases with height rather
usual decrease of temperature at the rate of
6.6oC/km in the standard atmosphere.
 It happen within 50meters of the
troposphere and leads to a rapid decrease in
refractive index with height.
 This layer act as a duct or leaky waveguide
which leads the EM waves between its walls.
 The high frequency waves
which enter into this duct are
continuously refracted in the
duct and reflected by the
ground.
 So they propagate around
the curvature for beyond the
line of sight, even upto a
distance of 1000km.
 This special refraction of EM
waves is called super refraction
and the process is called duct
propagation
The refractive index ‘n’ at a height h must be
replaced by a modified refractive index given
by
•Duct is formed only when the value of gradient
dM/dh is –ve.ie M decrease with increase in
height.
• Only waves that are travelling at small angles
w.r.t. the horizontal are trapped b/w the upper
and lower walls of the duct.

•The favourable condition for duct propagation is

that the transmitter is inside the duct
Fading
Fading is classified in terms of the duration of the
variation in signal strength. They are:
1. Rapid fluctuations:- due to multi-path interference
and they occur for a few seconds.
2. Short-term fluctuations:- due to variation in the
characteristics of the propagating medium and
they occur for a few hours.
3. Long Term fluctuations:- due to seasonal variations
in the propagation medium and they occur for a
few days
Types of Fading
 Diversity Techniques
Some of the fading effect is minimizedby using AGC, but it
becomes helpless when the signal fades much below the noise
level. Such cases use diversity techniques.