CE-611 Advance Construction Techniques

Lecture-20
Caisson: A theoretical Introduction

P R O F. S A M I R S I N H P PA R M A R
A S S T. P R O F. D E PA R T M E N T O F C I V I L E N G I N E E R I N G
D H A R M A S I N H D E S A I U N I V E R S I T Y, N A D I A D , G U J A R AT, I N D I A
MAIL: SAMIRDDU@GMAIL.COM
 Soil Stabilization
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Various methods to improve its engineering properties.

Classified into two groups:
1. Without admixtures.
2. With admixtures.
 Soil Stabilization Principle
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Any treatment to soil which increases its natural strength

( Min. vol. change, High shear strength).
Can be applied to soil in its natural position or on the fill / pre-mixed in plants.
 Soil Stabilization without Admixtures
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Taking advantage of inherent shear strength of soil.

Examples are: (1) Compaction
(2) Drainage
 Soil Stabilization with Admixtures
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Examples are:
- Soil Mixing
- Soil-Lime stabilization
- Soil-Cement stabilization
- Bitumen (asphalt)- soil stabilization
- Chemical stabilization
(a) Calcium chloride. (b) Sodium chloride
(c) Sodium silicate
 Soil Mixing
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Combining different c & ø soil to improve shear strength.

Soil-Lime stabilization
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Enclosed soil holds lime for

adding to marginal crushed
stone base material
 Soil-Lime stabilization
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Lime slurry pressure injection

rig treating a failed highway
slope
Lime treated gravel with lime fed by screw conveyor
 Soil-Lime stabilization
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Bulk pneumatic truck

Distribution of quick lime from spreading lime from bar
mechanical spreader on city street spreader
 Soil-Lime stabilization
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Spreading of lime slurry

Mixing with disc horrow

 Soil-Lime stabilization
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May be used alone or in combination with cement, fly-ash or bitumen.

Mainly used for stabilizing the road bases and sub bases.
Amount of lime to be used is derived from CBR or unconfined compressive
strength test criteria.
 Soil-Lime stabilization
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On addition of lime to cement two types of chemical reaction takes place:
- alteration in the nature of absorbed water.
- cementing or pozzolanic action.
Used to decrease swelling pressure in clays.
 Steps in Soil-Lime stabilization construction
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1) Scarification and pulverization

2) Lime spreading
3) Preliminary mixing and addition of water
4) Preliminary curing (24 -48 hr)
5) Final mixing & pulverization
6) Compaction
7) Final curing.(3-7 days)
 Soil type & Lime stabilization

Soil-Lime stabilization % lime required

Soil-Lime stabilization 2-8%
Plastic soils 5-10%
Sandy soil with silty clay(<50%) 2-5%

Silty clay 5-10%

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 Soil-Lime stabilization
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5% lime gives optimum results.

Used in soil with high clay & Silty clay
( PI > 10), Lime increases OMC.
Hydrated lime causes cat-on exchange and leads to flocculation ( If
mixed intimately)
Reaction takes place within hour.
 Soil-Lime stabilization
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This quick reaction followed by slower soil improvement “ Pozzolanic

reaction”.
After flocculation soil can be re-mixed and compacted.
15 days curing is recommended.
 Lime fly ash stabilization
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Cheaper option in comparison to lime alone.

Better results in comparison to lime stabilization.
It increase the OMC further
5 to 8% fly ash addition gives optimal results.
With increase in % fly-ash LL decreases and PL increases ( PI
reduces).
@ 50% at 8-10 % addition.
 Lime fly ash stabilization
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Fly ash ( Major constituents are silica and alumina)

SiO2 + Al2O3
(60% +15%)
Fly ash is cohesion less/non plastic in nature.
Soil-Cement stabilization
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Batch type central part used for

mixing of soil-cement
 Soil-Cement stabilization
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Twin-shaft, continuous flow

central mixing plant for mixing
soil, cement & water
Rotary drum central mixing plant
 Soil-Cement stabilization
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Multiple transverse shaft

mixer, mixing soil, cement & Transverse single shaft mixer
water processing soil-cement in place.
Multiple passes are required.
 Soil-Cement stabilization
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Used for granular soil ( PI<10)

3 to 7% is mixed with soil ( add water for low Moisture content)
Pulverization of soil + add cement.
Material should be compacted within 30 min. after it is mixed.
First compaction by tamping or pneumatic roller then second with smooth
wheel roller.
 Typical compressive strength of soil
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Material Unconfined compressive strength

kN/m2
Untreated soil

Clay peat Less than 350

Well-compacted sandy clay 70-280

Well-compacted gravel, sand, clay 280-700

mixtures

Ref: Table 14-7, pg.708,B.M.das

 Typical Comp. Str. Of Soil-Cement mixture
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Material Unconfined compressive

strength kN/m2

Soil cement (10% cement by weight)

Clay, organic soils < 350

Silts, Silty clays, poorly graded sand 350-1050

Silty clay, sandy clays, very poorly graded sand & gravels 700-1730

Silty sands, sandy clays, sands & gravels 1730-3460

Well-graded sand-clay or gravel-sand-clay mixtures 3460-10350

Soil Type Amount of cement
required(% by weight)
Gravels 5-10%

Sands 7-12%
Silts 12-15%
Clays 12-20%

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 How to calculate amount of cement?
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P = Percentage wt. of cement.

H = thickness of layer (cm).

A (m2) γd = dry density of soil ( t/m2)

Amount of cement

H =

Number of cement bags required =

Bcp, pg.
no.902
 Bitumen (asphalt)- soil stabilization
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Suitable for granular soil.

5% to 7% of the volume of soil is added.
Moisture content should be minimum in soil.
Compacted only after volatile material (oil) is evaporated.
4-7% for Cohesive material.
4-10% for Sandy material.
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Other Methods of Stabilization

 Sand Drains
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Used to accelerate consolidation settlement of soft, normally consolidated clay

layers.
Steps to construct:
- Drilling holes through clay layer.
- Holes are then back filled with sand.
 Surcharge

Sand Drain

Radial rw= Sand drain radius

Drainage

de de = Sand drain diameter

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 Stone Column
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Used in Soft Organic & Cohesive Soils.

Stone used having size @ 6 - 40 mm.
Diameter range = 0.5 – 0.75m.
Spacing = 1.5 – 3m c/c.
Stone columns should extend through soft clay to firm strata to control
settlements.
For large site improvement, stone columns are most effective to a depth of 6-
10m.
 Electrical Method
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Used to densify the in situ cohesive soils.

Method is called electro osmosis.
Simply placing electrodes & passing direct current between them.
Current induces flow of water from anode to cathode.
Anode is metal rod & cathode is perforated pipe.
 Electro Osmotic Stabilization of soils
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(- ve) Original water table

Cathode (Well
connected to
pumping system)
(+ve)
Anode ( Steel rod)

Perforated Tube

Flow Lines
 Electrical Method
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The flow rate to a cathode well point can be estimated using modification of
Darcy's law: q = KeieA
 Where, q= flow rate, m3/s,
Ke = electro osmotic coefficient of
permeability based on voltage, 1 x 10-9 to
7 x 10-9 m/s per V/m,
ie = electrical potential gradient, V/m,
A = cross-sectional area, m2.
 The consumption of power varies from 1 to 10 kv per m3 of stabilized soil.
 Thermal Method: Heating
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Rarely used method

Used to stabilize saturated clays by heat
Russian technology
At 100° c drying increases the strength of clays.
A permanent change in structure of clay is possible at a temperature of
500°c, and at 1000°c there will be fusion of clay particles transforming clay
into solid substance like brick.
 Thermal Method: Ground Freezing
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Useful in soils which is having pore water content is more.

Series of refrigerant pipes are spreaded.
Pore water starts converting into ice.
The freezed soil is having high strength & low permeability.
Possible to stabilize wide range of type of soils.
 Thermal Method: Ground Freezing
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Freezing technique has been successfully used in

- sinking tunnel shaft
- advancing tunnels in running ground
- providing lateral restraint for
excavations.
 Stabilization by Injection Grout
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Purpose: - To decrease permeability

- To increase shear strength
- To decrease compressibility
 Stabilization by Injection Grout
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 Grouting is effective in following case:

 Construction below G.W.T.
 Difficult to access to the foundation level.
 The adjacent structure require that the soil of the foundation strata should not
be excavated.
Stabilization by Injection Grout
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Stabilization by Injection Grout
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Operation Process of Soil Stabilization
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　 Specification of Stabilizer
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Mixing ratio of stabilizer 　 & average strength
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Vibro Compaction Method
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Main elements of
vibratory compaction
equipment (resonance
compaction system).
Compaction probe
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VibroWing equipment and compaction probe.
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Vibro Wing machine Vibro Wing rod

Measurement of ground vibrations with the aid of a geophone (foreground)
during compaction and monitoring of resonance Compaction.
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Principle of deep vibratory compaction using variable frequency
concept
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