Data Collection

Outline
• Measurement principles
• Level of measurement
• Data collection process
• Data collection instruments
• Data collection methods
• Sources of error
• Preparing data for analysis
Introduction
• Data collection means gathering information that address the
research question. You must think of the best way to answer your
research question.

• Primary (data from participants) and secondary (journals) data

sources.
Purpose of Data Collection
• Testing hypotheses or addressing research questions
• Describing the sample characteristics
• Controlling confounding variables
• Analyzing potential biases
• Understanding subgroup effects
• Interpreting results
• Obtaining administrative information
Measurement Principles
• After data have been identified, you need to think how to measure
the variables (this needs time and skills).

• Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to variables.

• Example: gender (F/M) = (0/1).

• Qualitative research, data in narrative form.

Level of Measurement
• Refers to the type of mathematical calculations that can be made with
data.

• Nominal level of measurement

• Ordinal level of measurement
• Interval level of measurement
• Ratio level of measurement
Level of Measurement
• Nominal level of measurement: objects or events are named or
categorised and these categories must be distinct from each other.
For example: gender; religion; marital status; political party
membership. M:0, F:1 (no quantitative meaning).

• Ordinal level of measurement: when data can be rank-ordered. For

example: pain score (mild; moderate; and severe).
Level of Measurement
• Interval level of measurement (real numbers): when data can be
placed in ranks but also the ranks can be specified. For example:
temperature.

• Ratio level of measurement (most precise level of data): when data

can be ranked, there is distinction between ranks, and a natural zero
point can be identified. For example: the number of pain medication
requested by patients.
Level of Measurement
• Think of weight, is it interval or ratio data?!!

• Data can always be converted from one level to a lower level of

measurement, but not to a higher level.
Data Collection Process
• Who will collect the data?
• When will the data be collected?
• Where will the data be collected?
• What data will be collected?
• How will the data be collected?

• Variables must be measured in some fashion, and the most common way is
questionnaires*.

• Before you start collecting the data, you need to …

Data Collection Instruments
• Instruments are devices used to collect data.

• Use of existing instrument

• Developing an instrument
• Pilot studies: is a small-scale trial run of the actual study.
Existing Instrument
• The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED)

• Open- or close-ended questions

• Likert scales: several alternative items that express a viewpoint on a

topic, participants are asked to indicate the degree to which they
agree or disagree with the statement.
Criteria for Selection of Instruments
• Practicality of the instrument
• Reliability of the instrument
• Validity of the instrument
Criteria for Selection of Instruments
• Practicality of the instrument includes the appropriateness of the
instrument for the study population and its cost.
Criteria for Selection of Instruments
• Reliability of the instrument concerns its consistency and stability
and is usually determined by the use of correlational procedures
(ranges between -1.00 and +1.00; the higher the coefficient, the more
reliable is the instrument) ~ using instruments with reliability lower
than 0.70 is risky.

• Three different types: stability; equivalence; and internal

consistency.
Types of Reliability
• Stability: refers to the instrument’s consistency over time, e.g.
thermometer.

• Equivalence: refers to the degree to which two different forms of an

instrument obtain the same results or two or more observers using a
single instrument obtain the same result.

• Internal consistency: refers to the extent to which all items on an

instrument measure the same variable, Cronbach alpha measures it.
Criteria for Selection of Instruments
• Validity of the instrument concerns to its ability to gather the data
that it is intended to gather, established through examining the
existing literature of consulting experts.

• Validity and reliability are closely associated, an instrument cannot be

valid unless it is reliable. However, the reliability of an instrument tells
nothing about the degree of validity.
Data Collection Methods
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observation
Data Collection Methods – Questionnaires
• Is a self-report instrument contains questions.

• Consider the overall appearance; the language and reading level of

questions; its length; wording of questions; types of questions;
question placement; cover letter; and completion instructions.

• Types of questions: demographic; close-ended; open-ended;

contingency; and filler questions.
Data Collection Methods – Questionnaires
• Distribution of questionnaire.

• Factors influencing response rates: mailing/ contact time; personal

signature; cover letter that motivates the respondents; neatness and
clarity of the instructions; ease of completion of the instrument; time
to complete it; guarantee of anonymity; and an incentive.
Data Collection Methods – Questionnaires
• Advantages: quick and inexpensive; testing for reliability and validity
is easier than other instruments; less time consuming; data can be
obtained from widespread geographical areas; respondents can
remain anonymous; and respondents are more likely to provide
honest answers.

• Disadvantages: mailing it can be costly; response rate maybe low;

respondents may provide socially acceptable answers; they may fail to
answer some questions; they must be literate; they must be physically
able to complete it; and there is no opportunity to clarify items.
Data Collection Methods – Interviews
• Is a method of data collection in which an interviewer obtains
responses from participants either in face-to-face; over phone; or
internet connection.

• Three types: unstructured; semi-structured; and structured.

Data Collection Methods – Interviews
• Interview instrument: interview schedule (consider if the interview is
carried over the phone).

• Interview questions: clear; unambiguous; simple; and short. Using

probs.

• Interviewer training
Data Collection Methods – Interviews
• Timing and setting for interviews

• Interviewer guidelines: before the interview; during the interview;

and after the interview.

• Influence of interviewers on respondents: age; gender; manner;

clothing; tone of voice … etc.
Data Collection Methods – Interviews
• Advantages: nonverbal behaviour can be observed; flexible approach;
and in-depth response can be obtained.

• Disadvantages: training is needed; time consuming; arrangements

may be difficult; participants maybe anxious or provide socially
acceptable responses; and they maybe influenced by interviewer
characteristics.
Data Collection Methods – Observation
• Determine behaviours to be observed (activities; performance;
verbal; nonverbal communication; environmental characteristics …)

• Who are the observers?

• Observing procedures (structured or unstructured; event sampling or

time sampling)
Data Collection Methods – Observation
• Relationship between observer and participants (nonparticipant
observer; participant observer (Margaret Mead))

• The role of the nurse versus the role of the researcher.

Observation Biases
• Halo effect: is the tendency of observers to be influenced by one
characteristic in judging others.

• Error of leniency: is the tendency for observers to rate everything

positively.

• Error of severity: is the contrasting tendency to rate too harshly.

Other Data Collection Methods
• Physiological measures: involves the collection of physical data from
subjects which are objective and accurate. In vivo (BP) and in vitro (K
level).

• Attitude scales: are self-report data collection instrument that ask

participants to report their attitudes or feelings on a continuum (Likert
scale).

• Psychological tests: involves assessing personality characteristics

(intelligence test).
Sources of Error
• Some error component is likely to exist in the data.

• Instrument inadequacies regarding the items used to collect data and

the instructions given to participants.

• Biases in the administration of the instrument.

• Environmental conditions and characteristics of the participants.

Preparing Data for Analysis
• To put the data in a nice and understandable form.

• Consider using a statistical consultant.

Critique
Critique
To Sum Up …
Any Questions?
Thank You 
References
• Nieswiadomy R.M, 2012. Foundations of Nursing Research (6th ed.),
Pearson Education: Upper Saddle River.

• Polit D.F and Hungler B.P, 1999. Nursing Research Principles and
Methods (6th ed.), Lippincott: Philadelphia.