UNIT III ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

Basic concept of lasers, advantages of lasers – laser

interferometers – types – DC and AC lasers interferometer –
Applications – Straightness – Alignment, Basic concept of
CMM – Types of CMM – Constructional features – Probes –
Accessories – Software – Applications – Basic concepts of
Machine Vision System – Element – Applications.
 LIGHT
 Light makes the world seem bright and colorful to our
eyes.
 Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation that carries energy
from a SOURCE (something that makes light) at the very
high speed of 186,000 miles per second (300,000 kps), or 670
million mph.

 Light rays travel from their source in straight lines. Although

they can pass through some objects, they bounce off others or
pass around them to make SHADOWS.
Light can travel in
con t inu o u s 1Nav e s Light can tra� I _
as
se-parate particles
..A. ' W A V E S A N D PA R T I C L E S
S o m e t i m e s li g h t s e e m s t o b e h a v e a s t h o u g h it c a r r i e s e n e r g y in w a v es.. o - t h e r
t i m e s it s e e m s t o c a r r y e n e r g y i n p a r t i c l e s o r p a c k e t s , c a l le d p h o t o n s . f i r e d
o f f
in q u i c k s u c c e ssi o n f r o m t h e s o u r c e _ S c ie n t i s t s a r g u e d f o r m a n y y e a r s o v e r
w h e t h e r li g h t w a s r e a l l y a w a v e o r a p a r t i c l e.- N o w t h e y a g r e e t h a t li g h t c a n
b e h a v e a s e it h e r a w a v e o r a p a r t ic l e . d e p e n d in g o n t h e si t u a t io n _
 PRECISION INSTRUMENTS BASED ON LASER
 Laser stands for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”. Laser
instruments are devices to produce powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light in
which the waves are coherent

 Properties of laser
 Monochromatic

 Collimated beam

 Coherent waves

 Powerful

 A typical helium-neon laser source produces a 1 to 2 mm diameter beam of pure red light
having power of 1MW. So, this type of a beam is focused at a point. It means, beam has
very high intensity. The laser is used extensively for interferometer. Upto a great distance
beam has no divergence but then it begins to expand at a rate of about 1mm/m.

 This is used for very accurate measurements in the order of 0.1 µm in 100m.
 PRECISION INSTRUMENTS BASED ON LASER
 Laser are extensively used for interferometry

 Metrology laser are low power instrument that emit visible pr infrared light.

 Light at a wave length of 0.6 m is produced by He-Ne lasers.

 Laser are used for dimensions measurements and surface inspection.

 VARIOUS LIGHT SOURCE
• Mercury
• Mercury 198
• Cadmium
• Krypton
• Krypton 86
• Sodium
• Helium
• Neon
• Gas lasers
 LASER TELEMETRIC SYSTEM
 In general , telemetry means measurement made from distance.
 To detect change in dimension of the moving components. As the
output of the system is in digital form.
 Laser telemetric system is a non contact gauge that measures with a
collimated laser beam. It measures at the rate of 150 scans per
second.
CONTRUCTION
The laser telemetric system consists of mainly three components
namely
1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3. Processor electronics.
 The transmitter produces a collimated parallel scanning laser beam
moving at a high constant linear speed. The beam appears as red line
after scanning.
 The receiver collects the laser beam and photo electrically senses the
laser light transmitted through the objects being measured. The
processor receivers the signal and converts it into convenient from.
The transmitter has the following components.
1. Low power helium neon gas laser.
2. Synchronous motor.
3. Collimating lens.
4. Reflector prism
5. Synchronous pulse photo detector.
6. Replaceable window
WORKING
• The object to be measured is placed in the measurement region. High
constant and linear speed laser beams from transmitter which is focused on
the object to be measured. The receiver module collects and senses the
laser light transmitted past the object to be measured.
• After sensing, the processor electronics take the received signals and
convert them into a convenient from and then display the dimensions being
gauged.
ADVANTAGES:
• It is possible to detect changes in dimensions when components are moving
• It is possible to detect changes in dimensions when product is in
continuous processes.
• There is no need to wait for taking measurements when the product is in
hot conditions
• It can be applied on production machines and controlled them with
feedback loops
• It is possible
to write
programs for
the
microprocesso
r to take care
of smoke, dust
and other
airborne
LASER AND LED BASED DISTANCE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

 It can measure distance from 1to 2m with accuracy of the order of 0.1 to
1% of the measuring range. The measuring system uses two distance meter
placed at equal distance on either side of the object and a control unit to
measure the thickness of an object.
WORKING
• When the light is emitted by laser or LED hits on object, it scatters and
some of the scattered light is seen by a position sensitive detector or diode
array.
• Th angle at which the light enters the detector will change distance
between the measuring head and object is changed. The change angle of
deviation is measured and calibrated in terms of distance.
ADVANTAGE
• These types of instruments are very reliable because there is no moving
part.
• Instrument response time is in milliseconds.
• The output is measured as 0-20mA.
SCANNING LASER GUAGE

 The scanning laser gauge is used for dimensional measurements.

The figure shows a schematic diagram of a scanning laser gauge. It consists
of transmitter, receiver and processor electronics.
WORKING
• A scanning laser light is made to pass through a liner scanner lens as a
parallel beam. The object is placed in a parallel beam, casts a dependent
shadow. The signals from the light entering the photocell are processed
by a microprocessor to provide display of the dimension represented by
the time difference between the shadow edges.

ADVANTAGES
• Accuracy of ±0.25 µm for 10-50mm diameter objects.
• It is used to measure objects of 0.05mm to 450mm diameter.
INTERFEROMETRY
INTRODUCTION

 The phenomenon of interaction of light is called interference.

 Under ordinary conditions, the wave nature of light is not apparent. But when the light
waves interact with each other, the wave effect is visible and this is made use of for
measuring purpose.

 A pattern of dark bands are produced when light is made to interfere. These bands
correspond to accurate scale of division.

 The use of interferometric technique for measuring the interference, enables the size
of slip gauges and end bars to be determined directly interms of the wavelength of the
light source
MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT

 For length measurements by interferometry, monochromatic light source is

used.
 A ray of light having a single frequency and wave length produces
monochromatic light.

ADVANTAGES

 It is virtually independent by any ambient conditions.

 Its wavelength has precise value.
 It is reproducible.
PRINCIPLES OF INTERFERENCE

 For interference to occur , the two light rays must be coherent. This is
possible only when the two rays are originated from the same point of the
light source at the same time.
 Mutual interference occurs when two rays with same wavelength meet at same
point.
 The nature of interference will depend upon the phase of the two waves at their
meeting point.
 The two waves are in same phase and they reinforce each other, then the resultant
intensity is the sum of the two intensities.
 If these two waves that are in phase have the same amplitude, then the resultant
amplitude become twice and a bright spot is resulted.
 The two waves are in out of phase, then the resultant intensity is the difference
between the two intensities.
 If these two waves have same amplitude, the resultant amplitude is zero and a dark
spot is resulted.
 Xiaoyu Ding

Physics Review
• Diffraction
Diffraction is a sure
sign that whatever is
passing through the
hole is a wave.

Diffraction of Water Waves

 Xiaoyu Ding

Physics Review
• Diffraction of Light
Light, just like a water
wave, does spread out
behind a hole is the
hole
is sufficiently small.
Light is a electromagnetic
wave.

Diffraction of light Wave

 Xiaoyu Ding

Physics Review
• A Double-Slit Interference Experiment

Interference of Light
 Interferometer
• Interferometer:
Is an optical instrument that can produced
two beams interference or multiple beam
interference.

• wave front division interferometers:

Two light beams from the same wave front
are made to interfere to produce an
interference fringe pattern.

• Amplitude-division interferometers:
A light beam from one source point is
divided into two beams using a beam splitter.
e.g. Michelson’s interferometer
INTERFEROMETERS

 Interferometers are optical instruments used for measuring flatness and determining
the length of slip gauges.
 The wavelength of lightwave is used for measuring unit.
 It is based on the interference principle.
 Interferometers are used to overcome the limitations of optical flat.

Types of interferometers.

1. Michelson interferometers
2. Twyman- green specialization of Michelson interferometer
3. Laser interferometer
4. N.P.L flatness interferometer
 Xiaoyu Ding

Principle of Michelson Interferometer

• Albert Michelson (1852~1931)
– the first American scientist to receive
a Nobel prize, invented the optical
interferometer.
– The Michelson interferometer has
been widely used for over a century to
Albert Michelson
make precise measurements of
wavelengths and distances.
 Xiaoyu Ding

Principle of Michelson Interferometer

• Michelson Interferometer
1) Separation
2) Recombination
3) Interference

A Michelson Interferometer for use on an optical table

 Xiaoyu Ding

Principle of Michelson Interferometer

• Analyzing Michelson Interferometer
– The central spot in the fringe pattern alternates
between bright and dark when Mirror M2 moves.
If we can know the spacing distance
of M2 between two sequent
central bright spots and the
number of central bright spots
appeared, then we can calculate
how long M2 moved.

Photograph of the interference fringes

produced by a Michelson interferometer.
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
Construction and working:

 It is the oldest type of interferometer.

 The monochromatic light is made to fall on a beam divider. The beam
divider splits the incoming light into two parts.
 It consists of two mirror M1 and M2 placed perpendicular to each other
from the beam divider.
 The mirror M2 is fixed whereas M1 is movable. It is attached to the object
whose dimension is to be measured.
 One part of the incoming light is transmitted through compensating plate P
to the mirror M1.
 Other part is reflected through the beam divider to mirror M2.
 The rays are reflected back from the mirror and are reunited at the semi-
reflecting surface where they are transmitted to the eye.
 Michelson interferometer
• Configuration:
Michelson interferometer consists of a coherent
light
source, a beam splitter BS a reference mirror ,a
movable mirror and a screen .
• Applications:
There are many measurements that Michelson
interferometer can be used for, absolute
distance
measurements, optical testing and measure
gases
• refractive
Work method:index.
The BS divides the incident beam into two parts
one travel to the reference mirror and the other to
the movable mirror .both parts are reflected back to
BS recombined to form the interference fringes on
the screen.
 Twyman-Green interferometer

• Configuration:
– A modified configuration of Michelson
interferometer ( rotatable mirror& a
monochromatic point source)

• Applications: length measurements, optical testing

e.g. lenses ,prisms, mirrors.

• Work method:
When the interferometer aligned properly, two images
of the light source S from the two mirrors M1&M2 will
coincide. The superposed waves are parallel and have
a constant phase difference. On the serene a uniform
illumination can be seen with a constant intensity
depends on the path difference.
• Mirror imperfections test:
There will be an interference fringes due to the path
difference between W2 and the reference plan
wave W1
TWYMAN –GREEN SPECIALISATION OF MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

Construction and working:

 In Michelson's interferometer, it is very difficult to interpret the fringe pattern.

 This was modified by Twyman -green. It utilises a pin –hole source diaphragm and collimating
 lenses. In this way , all rays are rendered parallel to the central rays and thus all rays describe the
 It consists
same path.of two mirror M1 and M2 placed perpendicular to each other from the beam divider.
 The mirror M2 is fixed whereas M1 is movable. It is attached to the object whose dimension is to
be
measured.
 One part of the incoming light is transmitted through compensating plate P to the mirror M1.

 Other part is reflected through the beam divider to mirror M2.

 The rays are reflected back from the mirror and are reunited at the semi-reflecting surface where they are
transmitted to the eye.

 Usually it is quite difficult to count such fringes by eye. However , photo detectors connected to high speed
counters can do this job very accurately.
TWYMAN-GREEN SPECIALISATION OF MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
N.P.L. FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

 This instrument is mainly used for checking the flatness of flat surfaces.

 This interferometer was designed by National Physical Laboratory and is commercially

manufactured by Hilger and Watts Ltd.

 The flatness of any surface is judged by comparing with an optically flat surface which is
generally the base plate of the instrument.

 This instrument essentially consists of a mercury vapour lamp as shown in the Fig. As we
are interested in having single monochromatic source of light, the radiations of the mercury
lamp are passed through a green filter. The wavelength of the resulting monochromatic
radiation is of the order or 0.0005 mm.
 This radiation is then brought to focus on pinhole in order to obtain an intense point source
of light. A mirror is used in order to deflect the light beam through 90°.
N.P.L. FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER
N.P.L. FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

 The pinhole is placed in the focal plane of a collimating lens, thus the radiations out of the lens will be
parallel beam of light. This beam is directed on the gauge to be tested via an optical flat. The fringes
formed are viewed directly above by means of a thick glass plate semi-reflector set at 45° to the
optical axis.
 The gauge to be tested is wrung on the base plate whose surface is finished to a degree comparable to
that of the highest quality gauge face.

 If the gauge face is flat and parallel to the base plate, then the optical flat being equally
inclined on both the surfaces the fringe pattern from both the gauge face and the base plate will consist
of straight, parallel and equally spaced fringes as shown in Fig. 3. (a).

 When the gauge is flat but not parallel to the base plate, then straight and parallel fringes of different
pitch above the gauge face as compared with those of the base plate are seen Fig. 3. (b)
 Surface of gauge Gauge surface
is inclined to base plate. convex/concave.

Slight rounding off

at corners.
Laser interferometer
 Xiaoyu Ding

Laser Interferometer
• What’s laser interferometer?
• The principle of standard
• interferometer
• Types of interferometers
Applications
 Xiaoyu Ding

What’s a Laser Interferometer

• Laser Interferometer:
– the instrument used for high precision
measurements (distance, angles…. etc.)
– it uses interferometry as the basis for
measurement.
– it uses the very small, stable and accurately
defined wavelength of laser as a unit of measure.
 Xiaoyu Ding

Types of Laser Interferometers

• Homodyne Laser Interferometer (Standard)
– It is based on interference of laser waves
(Michelson interferometer)

• Heterodyne Laser interferometer

– It is based on Doppler Effect.
 Xiaoyu Ding

Principle of Heterodyne Laser

interferometer
• Doppler Effect
Doppler Effect:
The change of frequency
when a source moves
relative
to an observer.
f0 f0
f  , f 
1  vs v 1 vs v

f f0 f
We can get the velocity of an object by
measure the frequency change
between
incident laser wave and reflected laser
wave.
 Xiaoyu Ding

Applications
• Measurement of Distance
– 1) frequency stabilized He-Ne laser tube
– 2) combination of beam-splitter and retroreflector
– 3) a moving retroreflector
– 4) detection electronics

Aerotech’s LZR3000 Series Laser IŶterferoŵeter Systeŵ

 Xiaoyu Ding

Applications
• Other Applications
– Measure angles, flatness, straightness, velocity and
vibrations, etc.

Rearrangements
of the light paths
 Xiaoyu Ding

Resolution
• XL-80 Laser Measurement
System
LASER IN'TERJi'-
ER O:.\,IETR Y
The Laser interferometry involves the following components,

1. Two frequency laser source.

2. Optical elements.

3. Laser heads measurement receiver.

4. Measurem ent display.

J.. The two frequency Laser source generally b e c o m e s H�. type that generates stable
coherent ligh t beams of two f requencies- N .In
e these two f requencies= one
polariz ed
horizontally relative to the plane of the mounting feet.
J..
Laser slightly oscillates at two frequencies by a cylindrical permanent magnet around the
cavity.
J...
Beam containing both frequencies passes through a quarter wave and half wave plates
which change the circular polarization, one vertical and other horizontal.
•
The linear polarized beam is expanded in a collimating telescope, after which most of the
beam is transmitted through a 4Y' beam splitter and one of Laser bead.
The various optical elements are

1. Beam splitters.

2. Beam benders

3. Retro reflectors

1. Beam
sptiltte1·s
In is used to divide the laser beam in to separate beams along different axes. Itt is possible
to adju st the splitte rs laser's output in te nsity by having a choice of be am
splitte r
reflectivi ti es.

The below fig shows the use of beam splitters to divide the laser output equally .along the
different axis. F o:r example, tacking 100% Laser beam is splined equally in three axes.

2. Beam [benders

� It is used to deflect the light be am around corners on it path f rom the laser to the axis
.th e
be am benders are ju st flat mirrors .but having absolute flat and very high reflectivity
.normally .the 90° beam deflection is avoided for not to disturb the polarizing vectors.
 AXIS 1 1'

AXIS
1
33%
25
%

AXIS2
50o/�BEA
M
SPLIITER
•

67% 50
%

AXIS3 33% 100o/c 25%

33%8EAM
LASER AXI
._..._ SPLITTER
S3

25
%
100%
LASE AXI
R S4
 � They are plane mirrors, roof prism or cubic corners .. The cube corners are 3 mutually
perpendicular plane mirrors, and the reflected beam is always parallel to the incident
beam i11 these devices ..
� In case of AC laser interferometer measurements, t,:vo retro reflectors are used.. \\Ihe11
plane mirror is used as retro reflector i11 plane mirror interferometer, it must be flat with
in 0 .. Oeirnicron per cm

3. LASER HEAD'S 1\il:EASUREl\ilENT RECETITER::

� It is used to detect the part ofthe returning beam as/J -f2 and a Doppler shifted frequency
component .

A� ....

f...,. DISPL.A.Y:
,4. 1\ilEASUREl\ilE1'1T

The measurement display has a microcomputer to compute and display results .. The
signals f rom reference re ce iver and m ea su rem en t rece iv er located i 11 th e laser head
are
counted i11 two separate pulse counter and subtract. Other input signals for correction are
temperature co-efficient of expansions .. Air velocity is also displayed..
 .
,
...._M.EASURES I
CHANGETSHI DISTANCE N
_....
S
F
Rs
FROM -
LASER -
SCOURG INTERFEROMETER F
E ....._ .......... CUBE CORNE
. O R
RECEIVER·
(a) Standard
Interferometer.
A.C LASER INTERFEROMETER
 4. Ext ernal c111.b e
corners.
5.
Photo detectors.
6
Amplifiers.
7.
Pulse convener.
L Two frequency Zeeman Laser.

It is generally He-Ne type 1Iha1I generates stable coherent light beams of two frequencies, one is
polarized vertically and th e other on e is polarized horizontally relative to th e plane of the
mounting .

. Bea.111 splitters
2.
It divides the laser beam into separate beams along different axis. It is possible 1Io adjust the
splined Laser, s output intensity by having a choice of beam splitter reflectivities.

,.. c
1
. : , • •• ub e
corners
TI11e cube corners can be plane mirrors roof prisms. Each AC Laser interferometers are required at

least tw o retro f re qu encie s. One is fixed external cube corner and another on e is ex te m al
cube corner. Both the cube corners are used 1Io reflect the lase r be am.
 , - - , . i � FIXED
INTERNAL
8 CUBE
1 BEAM CORNER
SPLITIERS
TWO
FREQUENCY
ZEEMAN
LASER
EXTERN
iP, AL
REFERENCE CUBE
BEA� CORNER
. PHOT DOPPLE
DEO
TECTOR R
S . UP
SIGN PULS .
REFERENC AL AMPLIFIER . E OlNEATOR
E ·t- S L,....;..--.,
SG
I NAL �±6
t- � DOWN

�
4. Photo detectors

Photo d et ect crs receive li:be signal frorn the beam spfitn ers .an.d claan.g ers inuo electrical
signal.
5. Amplifiers

T I 1le 1·e a r e t w o a m p l i fie r s u.s e d in A C Lase r irrt e r f er o m er e r. I tt rs urse d t o se p a r a t e t h e

f re q u e n.c y
cli ff'eren.ce.
6. P u ls e co rrv ert e r

T ille p u l se c o rr v e rue r is u se d t o e x rr a.c as c h a n g e in f re qu.e n .c y

4f.
'\Vo rkm
·�
T h e r :.v. o f re qu e n c ie s Z 'eem .an, l a se r g e n e r a ne lig h t of r' w o sl ig h tl y d r ff ' e r e n t f l.·e q_llle n c ie s
, ,;;,i tth
o p p o s i t e c i r c u l a r p o f a r i.z a.ti o n. s . T I ].e b e a r n s a r e sp lin e d b y ttb e b e a r n sp liu e irs B :!I.. I n t h .is .
o n e p a r t tr a v e ls t o ' w a r d s B 2 a n d f ro m B .2 t o e x t e r n a l c u b e o o z n .er s, ··,,;rv h .e r e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t
B e a m s sp li u e r B 2 o p t i c a l l y se p a r a t e s t h e f re q u e n c i e s f ll "l..-.r·h id 1 is se n t to a fix e d
is r n e a.s m r e d ,
r e f l e c t o :tr a n d
th en r ejoi ns f ll. at t he b ear n spli ne ir B2 to pro duce al j ern ar e l i g h u .an d d .ark interfe ren ce . NO'-'•'"=
tb.e e x t e n La l . c u b e c o j m .e r' m o v e s ,.,,:rh i c l 1 it ,.•.�11 p e o d m.c e a, c la a n .g e in f l ( Le _=t l f il.) in . t h e
1 r e t u n 1 i n g b e a m f i r e q u e n c y. So. the ligln b eam s move t owarda phm:o detectors p2 having
frequencies gfi.e.• fll. to
T h . e p h o t o d e t e c t o r p ll r e c e iv e s si g n a l f ro m b e a m sp li t t e :tr B ll a r i.d c h a n g e s t h e r e f e r e n c e s
� a n d p 2 "-•,t"l.11 b e c h a n g e d inno e l e c t r i c a l . si
be am fl
gri.al..
a n d f 2 in t o e l e c t r i c a l si g n a l . T I 1e nv v o arrrp f i fl e r s A I a n d A 2 se p a r a t e f re q u e n c y d i f f e :are n .c e
si g n a l s f 2 - f 1 .a n d f 2 �( f 1 +�.D- T h e p u l s e c o n v e r t e r e..,�t r .a c t s .6.f .a n d d i s p l a y s in t h e f 'o r r n o f
p ul s e s i n . a n. a l . o g
o:m.· digital f'orrn in dlL e output.
 Xiaoyu Ding

References
• http://www.aerotech.com/products/engref/intexe.html
• http://www.renishaw.com/en/interferometry-explained--7854
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson_interferometer
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometry
• PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS, Randall Knight,
D.
2003.
Basic Principles of Coordinate
Measuring machines
Basic Principles of Coordinate Measuring machines

A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring the physical

geometrical characteristics of an object.

This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it may be

computer controlled.

Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis of this
machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light, among
others.
 DESCRIPTION

• The typical "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, an X, Y and Z.

These axes are orthogonal to each other in a typical three dimensional
coordinate system.
• Each axis has a scale system that indicates the location of that axis. The
machine will read the input from the touch probe, as directed by the
operator or programmer.
• The machine then uses the X,Y,Z coordinates of each of these points to
determine size and position. Typical precision of a coordinate measuring
machine is measured in Microns, or Micrometers, which is 1/1,000,000 of
a meter.
• A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in
manufacturing and assembly processes to test a part or assembly against
the design intent. By precisely recording the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the
target, points are generated which can then be analyzed via regression
algorithms for the construction of features.
• These points are collected by using a probe that is positioned manually by
an operator or automatically via Direct Computer Control (DCC). DCC
CMMs can be programmed to repeatedly measure identical parts, thus a
CMM is a specialized form of industrial robot.
Coordinate Measuring Machines - Model
Parts

• Coordinate-measuring machines include

three main components:
• The main structure which include three axes
of motion
• Probing system
• Data collection and Reduction system
- typically includes a machine
controller,
desktop computer and application software
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE
ELEMENTS OF A CMM

CO-ORDINATE
DIGITAL
MEASURING COMPUTER
READ OUT
MACHINE

PROBING SOFTWARE
SYSTEM
Uses

They are often used for:

• Dimensional measurement
• Profile measurement
• Angularity or orientation measurement
• Depth mapping
• Digitizing or imaging
• Shaft measurement
 Feature Based Measurement
• Form
– straightness, flatness, roundness, cylindricity,
sphericity
• Orientation
– parallelism, perpendicularity, concentricity,
angularity
• Profile
– profile (scanning), surface (manual), output
(graphics)
 ADVANTAGES OF USING CMM
FLEXIBILITY:

 Co-ordinate measuring machines are essentially universal measuring machines and

do not need to be dedicated to any single or particular measuring task.

 They can measure practically any dimensional characteristic of virtually any part
configuration, including cams, gears, and contoured surfaces.

 No special fixtures or gages are required; because electronic probe contact is light,
most parts can be inspected without being clamped to a surface plate.

REDUCED SETUP TIME:

 Establishing part alignment and appropriate reference points are very time
consuming with conventional surface-plate inspection techniques.

 These procedures are greatly simplified or virtually eliminated through software

available on computer-assisted or computer-controlled CMMs.
IMPROVED ACCURACY:

 All measurements on a CMM are taken from a common geometrically fixed

measuring system, eliminating the introduction and accumulation of errors that can
result with hard gage inspection methods and transfer techniques.

 Moreover, measuring all significant features of a part in one setup prevents the
introduction of errors due to setup changes.

 In the part-program-assisted mode, the operator positions the machine; once the initial
position has been set, the machine is under the control of a program that eliminates
operator choice.

 In the Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) mode, motor-driven machines run

totally unattended by operators.

 Also, automatic data recording, available on most machines, prevents errors in

transcribing readings to the inspection report.

 This all adds up to the fact that less skilled operators can be readily instructed to
perform relatively complex inspection procedures.
IMPROVED PRODUCTIVITY:

 All the factors previously mentioned help to make CMMs more productive than
conventional inspection techniques.

 Further dramatic productivity improvements are realized through the computational

and analytical capabilities of associated data handling systems, including
calculators and all levels of computers.
B LO C K D IA G R A M OF ELEI\AEN T OF A CMM
THE S

COORDINATE Iii..
... DIGITAL Iii..
CONIPUTER
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PR OB EING
SYSTEM I SO F T \VAR E
I

A b asic C o -o rdin ate M easurin g Machine consists of f ou r eleme n ts.

1) The ma cbin.e structure w hic h is ba sic ally an X- Y--Z device.

posit ion in g
2) The Probing system use to colleen: raw data on the pan and provide to the control
input
system.
3) Machine Control and Con1p111Ier hardware.

4) The So f tw are f or th ree dime n sio nal

analy se s.
• All CMMs will have three moving elements of which one is capable of moving in x-
axis, another in y-axis and another in z-axis with respect to each other.

• Each moving element is also fitted with a linear measurement transducer for positional
feedback, with the help of which we can have the co-ordinate of a particular
position
with respect to a reference.

• The moving elements can be moved by means of frictionless air bearings or mechanical
bearings.

• The Job to be measured will be mounted over a table made of granite because of its
stability in various temperatures.

• The work table of the machine generally consists of tapped holes to facilitate clamping
and locating of parts.

• A total of 11 different machine configurations exist; however, some of these

configurations are modifications of one of the five primary configurations:
MACHINE CONFIGURATIONS
A variety of machine configurations is available from
the manufacturers of CMMs.

Each configuration has advantages that make it suitable

for particular applications.

A total of 11 different machine configurations exist;

however, some of these configurations are modifications
of one of the four primary configurations: bridge,
column, gantry, and horizontal arm.
TYPES OF CMM
1. Cantilever type
2. Bridge type
3. Column type
4. Gantry type
5. Horizontal type.

CANTILEVER TYPE

• The probe is attached to the vertical quill that moves in a Z-axis direction
relative to a horizontal arm that over hangs the work table.
• The quill can be moved along the length of the arm to achieve y-axis motion,
and the arm can be moved to the work table to achieve x-axis motion.

Advantages
• Convenient access to the work table and its relatively small floor space
requirements
Disadvantages
• Lower rigidity than some of the other CMM construction

Types of cantilever
1. Moving Table Horizontal Arm CMM
2. Moving Arm Horizontal Arm CMM
3. Column CMM
4. Fixed Table Horizontal Arm CMM
 Types of CMM

Moving Arm Horizontal Arm Moving Table Horizontal

Arm
Coordinate Measuring Machine Coordinate Measuring Machine
 Types of CMM

Fixed Table Cantilever Coordinate Moving

Bridge Coordinate Measuring
Measuring Machine Machine
 BRIDGE:
:
) I1I is 1Io load butt less sensitive to mechanical
difficult errors.
:> Brid ge -type coordinate measuring machines three movable components
employ
moving along mutually perpendicular guide
ways.
:> Tins eliminates pitching and yawing on the bridge assembly,
moments allowing
higher acceleration and deceleration
rates.
) The bridge-type CMM is the most popular
configuration,
:> TI1e double-sided support of this type of CMivl more support for large and
provides
medium-sized machines.
:> TI1e bri d g e can slide hack on die has e tt o give coinplet e acces sibility to the
working
area for safe= easy loading and unloading of palls.
· Traveling-bridge CivlMs have longer Y strokes for less cost than do cantilever-type
> CMMs.

> However, because of the weight of the extra s:1JJ1ppo111I= the inertia of die moving mess is
great er than in the cantilever con fi.gurati on.

> In. addition, the pans being measured \,...ith this type of CMM cannot be wider than die
clearance between die two sides of the bridges.

, (b}

�) Firxed
Moving brid11e
brridgl!
 td
)
L·shaped bridge Central drive bridge
COLUMN:
Column-type CMMs are similar in construction to
accurate jig boring machines.
The column moves in a vertical (Z) direction only, and a
two-axis saddle permits movement in the horizontal (X
and Y) direction.
Column-type CMMs are often referred to as universal
measuring machines rather than CMMs by
manufacturers and are considered gage-room instruments
rather than production-floor m/c.
Column-type CMM
 G.l tN TR Y
::
: Gan t r y -t y p e C M M s em p l o y t h r ee m o v ab l e compo nen ts mov in g alo ng mutuall y
> perpendicular gu ide way s.

> Th e probe is attached to the probe quill, which moves vertically (Z direction) relative
to a cross beam.

: Th e p robe q uill is mounted in a carriage than moves horizontally C,·[ direction) along
> the cross beam.

> The cross beam is supported and moves in die X direction along two elevated rails=
which are supported by columns attached to the floor.

> T h e ga n tr y -ty p e co n fig u ratio n was in it i all y in tr od u ced in th e early 19 6 0 s to

in sp e ct
Large parts su ch as airplane f use lage s= autom obile bod ie s= sh ip p rop ellers= and
die se l
engine blocks.
: The open design permits die operator to remain close to the pan being inspected while
�
1111n 1n11ZLn g th e of th e machine parts arid maintaining stm ctu ral
in ertia mov in g
stiffness.
 Types of CMM

Gantry Coordinate Measuring L-shaped Bridge Coordinate

Machine Measuring Machine
Gantry-type CMM
: Several different t}� es o:f horizontal arm C"Th/.IThl.'.Cs are
> availabte.
: ..�s is t y p ic a l o f a l l � " th e h o r 'iz o n t al a r m C1:11/II:11/Is e m p t o y t h r e e
> m o vable
comp orients moving afong mutualty p erp endicu ar guideways.
: TI 1e p rob e i s a tt a che d t o t h e frrs t com p o r i ent , whi c h m oves ver t i catty (Z
> d i r e ct i o n)
relative to the second,
: TI 1 e s e co n d c o m p o r i e n t m o v es h o r i z o n t al l y ( Y d i r e c t i o n ) r e · a t i v e t o t h e t f r i r d . Th e
> third
component is supported on two egs that reach down to opposite ;s-jdes of the
machine base and moves horizonta Iy (X direction) re ative to the base.
> .. An o t h e r n 1 0 d i f i ca t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e c o n f i g u r a t i o n b a s t w o b r i d g e - s n ap e d c o m p
o n en t s .
> O n e of t h e s e b r 'i d g e s is fix e d a t e a c h e n d to t h e m a c h i n e b a s e . T h e o t h e r b r 'i d g e ,
w hi ch
is an Inverted L-shape, rnoves horizontal y (X direction) on guideways in the
b r i d ......e a n d m a c h in e
fixed
b a s e,
> ..�t h i r d rnodification of moving-bridge configuration is the central-bridge drive.
The
dr rv e f orces are ap p ·i ed t o , t h e cen t er o f m ass o f t he br id g e a s s ern b Y-
: TI1i s c o n f i g u r a ti on e m p l o y s t h r e e m o v a b le c o m p o ri e n ts m o v i n g a l o n g
> m u t u al' y
p erp e n d i c u a r g u � d e w a y s .I n t h e m o v i n g -a r m d e s ig n , t h e p ro b e is a tta c h e d t o
t h e h o r iz o n ta l r a r n , w h i c h m o v e s in a b o r'iz o n t al Y d i r ecti o n .
 Horizontal arm CMMs

Moving ram Moving table

Fixed table
: T h e r a m is e n c a s e d i n a c a r r i a g e t h a t r n o v e s m a v e r t i c a l ( Z ) directi o n a n d i s
> supported
on a co· urnn that moves horizontat y (X directi on) re· ative to the base.
: I n t h e m o vin g -t ab e d e s ig n , t h e p r o b e is a tta c h e d to t h e arm , w hi ch
> h o riz o n t af is
p e r r n a n e n t y a tta c h e d a t on e o n ly to a c a r r i ag e t h a t m o v e s
en d in a vertical (Z)
directi on on the column.

: T h e a r m supp ort and tab: e h o r i z o n t a t y ( X a n d Y directi re: ative to the

on s)
> m a c h i n e br nase,
ove

)·· I n t h e fi x e d- t a b : e de s ig n , t h e p r o b e is a tta c h e d to t h e h o riz o n ta l a r m , w hi ch

·�-s
supp orted cantilever sty e at the arm supp ort and moves in a verti cal (Z) directi on.
: T h e a r m s u p p o rt r n o v e s h o r i z o n ta ily ( X a n d Y d i r e cti o n s) to the machine
> r e l a riv e
b a s e .H o r i z o n ta l M t 11 C1:\@_I are u sed to, in spe ct d i m en s i o n al and geometric
s t he workpi eoes.
accuracy o:f a bro ad sp of m a c hin es o r f a b ri
ectrurn cared
> Utitizing an electroni c probe, these machines check ·�n a m o d e s ir n i iar to t h e
parts �va y
they are machined on horizontal machine to ols.

h tg h -p r e c i s i o n b o r e arid g e o m e t r y are r e q u i r e d .B y
a l ig n m e n t r n e as u r e r n e n ts
m c o r p o r a tin g a r o ta r y t a b ' e, f o u r -a x i s c a p a b i rt y ·�s
o b t ain a b e _
PROBES

» TI1e utility of a Coordinate measuring machine depends largely on the nature of the
probing device.
> Three types of probes are commonly used:
1. H.ard
2. Electronic
3. N oncont
}> A probe is act
selected according no the dimensional and geometrical requirements of the
. .
mspecuon process.

HARD
PROBES::
> Hard probes consist of a shaft .and a probe tip mounted in various ways to the probe
.a.1111.

> A variety of probe tip sh a pes and siz es are available: the sh ape of the
probe
det ermines i1r s application,
> Conical probe s are use d f or locating holes. Ball probe s f or esta blishing
surf ace
locations. Cylindrical probes for checking slots and boles in sheet metal parts,
> Hard probe s can only be used in small, manually operate d CMMs when
in spectin g
simple parts of .a short production rnn.
 El.ECTR ONIC
PR OBES:
: Electronic probes are die most popular probes in use.
» This electronic probe= also called a touch probe = is an omni-direction al
> triggering
device consisting of a. probe body and a stylus: multiple stylus arrangements are also
available.

:> \V11en the stylus is brought into contact with die workpiece, a signal is sent to the
computer interface= indicating the instantaneous three-dimensional location of the
stylus.

> There are two types of probes.

l , Trigger type probe system

2. Measuring type probe system

ll. Trigger t)·_pe probe system:

TI1e "buckling mechanism : � a three point hearin g= contacts of which are
is th e
arranged at l 20° around the circumf erence, These act as electrical micro
con tacts
switches. When being touched in any probing direction= one more contacts are lifted
or
off and the current is broken= thus it generates a pulse. If the circuit is opened= the current
co-ordinate positions are read and stored.After probing= a prestressed spring ensures the
perfect Zero position of the three point bearing.
TI1e probing force is determined by the prestressed force of the spring.The measuring
time is shorter than in static principle; because of the probe system with data acquisition
is alwav. dv. namic in nature.
s

---..---
E ( ec
tri col
circuit

Microswitch

Probing
directio
n
Component

.....
 Probe Systems

Switching probe Continuous measuring probe Kinematic touch trigger probe

system system
. :\,.l[easuri.o type probe system:
2. g
> Measuring type probe is a sm all co- ordina te maehme in.
mechanism measurin g
itse lf .The "buckling me chanism =� of th]s sy ste m consists of parallel guide.
A n die

moment of probing= the spring parallelograms are dleflectedl from their initial
-j'F-
;. TI b d '11 1!...
position.
I • .,.. .,.. •

, b
J .
• •
>

play and f ricen1ents

1e 1neasm defined
tion .. Aca:1 parallel
1 ; e n1a disp lacement
.e eas11,v ecauseoftnepr ennre
1_
compared1sto tree
obe s svste111 their
astrom tors1011..
on"gn" 1i-:l.1U1 b e111e.asm·
ai1Tan ge1uents can ed· _

�"""'......._....,.__--i.-.A dju 5 ta b

le
S p .r 'irn g
X ....
d i r e e t i ·orn
NONCONTAClT PROBES::

)- N oncontacr probes are used when fast, accurate measurements are required with no
ph ysic al contact with th e part. Several types of non con ra ct probe s are u se d.

)- Optical probes are used when inspecting drawings, printed circuit boards, and s111.al1=
fragile workpieces, When these probes are used= the basic measuring programs can
still be used.

1 TOUCH SCANNERS
_ LASER PROBES
2 ''ISION PROBES
_
3
_

1_ Faster rate of inspection

2 Improved accuracy
3_ Minimisation of error
4_ operator operator skill requirements
Reduced
5_ Reduced need of fixtures and maintenance costs
6_ Unifonn inspection quality
7_ Reduction of scrap
8_ Reduction in setup time
9_ Si111pli fi cati on of inspection procedures.
10 Reduction in calculating and recording time and
. errors
COlifPU TER
1

SOFT\VARE
: Ahho11lgbthe cenpner is the hem ofthe sefiware that
} CMM= it is the enables the
steins toscftwne
SJ'fan1ily
:) A fulfil the potential.
that ,�lovls the transfer of data baweet
s of CMMs and CAD
SJ' steas,CAD
baweer other pregrsms
systen1s av�lable
sredifferent
nade thatfacilitate the
n1anufact11lies.
and
:) Developn1ent in this area
eermmicnicn ofhas
databeen so dy11an1ic tbat
s sundsrd
ahea been de foma
for data an have
accept bJ' the indusny. S11lch as
d}' eloped interface
n1easuren1ents d edspecification
Din1ensional
for conununication
frem CMMs toCAD SJ sen
: and initial graphicsspecification for CAD toCAD data
exchange.
j' s1 1lch for re\, enginee in specification deived frem ·
Such
as integration
ene
n1eas11lien1ents 1nakes
a neddpossible
1ing
of vlhich sthe
or a brokenareuse
all=ofand
CMMSthe in a (
va1ieuy of new, applications= ....
for the desdcpnen ofpall
progxa111s
Data flow between CAD/CAM system and CMM
CAD

Theoritical part

CAM

Part Program

NC CMM
processor processor

NC
machine CMM
center

Part

CMM
Inspe
Update NC
ction Flag tool room management

and for major

machine flaws

Tool
part program
and
planning

for minor tooling

wear adjustment
 Measurement with a CMM
• Step 1: Calibration of the stylus or probe tip with respect to
the probe head reference point using a calibrated ball.
Step 2: Metrological determination of the work piece
position in the measuring machine-related coordinated
system.
Step 3: Measurement of the surface points on the work
piece in the measuring machine-related coordinate system.
• Step 4: Evaluation of the geometric parameters of the work
piece
Step 5: Representation of the measurement results after
coordinate transformation into the work piece related
coordinate system.
Basic Geometric elements
Circle: Requires 3 points for measurement: By
measuring 4 (up to 50) or more points form
deviation is determined
Plane: Planar measurements require 4 or more
points for form. The intersection of Planes 2
and 3 generate Line 5; Point 6 is the
intersection of Plane 4 and Line 5

Cylinder: To define a cylinder, 5 points are

necessary. Calculations provide its axis and
diameter. The intersection of the Cylinder 7 and
Plane 4 is Line 8.
Cone: The cone (or taper) requires at least 6
points for definition. Calculations determine the
cone’s included angle and its axis in space.

Sphere: The location of a sphere is found by

measuring 4 points is also calculated.
Calculated Solution - Distance
Calculated Solution - Distance
Calculated Solutions - Angle
Calculated Solutions - Plane
Calculated Solutions - Circle
Calculated Solutions - Cylinder
Calculated Solutions - Sphere
Calculated Solutions - Cone
Machine Vision System
What is a Machine Vision System?
• Machine vision (also sometimes called computer vision or intelligent vision),
can be defined as a means of simulating the image recognition and analysis
capabilities of the human eye/brain system with electronic and
electromechanical techniques.

• In human vision system, eyes sense the image and brain analyses the
information and takes action on the basis of analysis. Similarly in machine
vision system, visual sensing of information is done after forming an image of
the object and information is analysed to make a useful decision about its
content. Machine vision system thus needs both visual-sensing and interpretive
capabilities.

• Image sensing device may consist of vidicon camera or a charge-coupled device

(CCD) image sensor. It receives light through a lens system and converts this
light into electrical signals. Micro-computers are used to refine and
analyse these electrical signals to provide an interpretation of the object that
generates these signals.
• Machine vision systems are now-a-days used to provide
accurate and inexpensive 100% inspection of workpieces.
• It is ideally suited for in-process gauging and provides timely
corrective actions to control the process.
• Machine vision systems are used for functions like gauging of
dimensions, identification of shapes, measurement of
distances, determining orientation of parts, quantifying motion,
detecting surface shading etc.
• These systems offer excellent consistency and reliability of
results.
• The resolution is limited by pixel array size and discrimination
is limited by high-contrast images. Accuracy remains
consistent in high production volume.
• On the other hand machine vision systems are best suited for high production
volume because of high cost and consistency of results at higher production.

• These systems function reliably without fatigue.

• A big advantage of machine vision systems is that they can be designed to

operate for wavelength in ultraviolet and infrared ranges to which human eye
is insensitive.

• Machine vision system is better suited for inspecting the masks used in the
production of microelectronic devices.

• It is a noncontact measuring technique and thus suited for fragile workpieces

and which would distort under measuring force and would get contaminated
by touch.

• Standoff distance upto one metre is possible. Accuracy of + 3u and better

is achieved.
The machine vision system involves following four basic steps:
• (i) Image formation
• (ii) Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by
• computer
• (iii) Defining and analysing the characteristics of image
(iv) Interpretation of image and decision making.
(i) Image formation.
For formation of image suitable light source is required. It may consist of
incandescent light, fluorescent tube, fiber-optic bundle, arc lamp, or strobe
light. Laser beam is used for triangulation system for measuring distance.
Polarised or ultraviolet light is used to reduce glare or increase contrast
IMAGE PROCESSING.

(a) Windowing. This technique is used to concentrate the processing in the desired area of
interest and ignoring other non-interested part of image. An electronic mask is created
around a small area of an image to be studied. Thus only the pixels that are not blocked
out will be analysed by the computer.

(b) Image Restoration. This involves preparation of an image in more suitable form during
the pre-processing stage by removing the degradation suffered. The image may be
degraded (blurring of lines/boundaries; poor contrast between image regions, presence
of background noise, etc.) due to motion of camera/object during image formation, poor
illumination/poor placement, variation in sensor response, poor contrast on surface,
etc.).
• The quality may be improved, (i) by improving the contrast by constant brightness
addition, (ii) by increasing the relative contrast between high and low intensity elements
by making light pixels lighter and dark pixels darker (contrast stretching) or (iii) by
Fourier domain processing.
IMAGE ANALYSIS
• Digital image of the object formed is analysed in the central processing unit of the
system to draw conclusions and make decisions.

• Analysis is done by describing and measuring the properties of several image features
which may belong to either regions of the image or the image as a whole.

• Process of image interpretation starts with analysis of simple features and then more
complicated features are added to define it completely.

• Analysis is carried for describing the position of the object, its geometric
configuration, and distribution of light intensity over its visible surface, etc.

• Three important tasks performed by machine vision systems are measuring the
distance of an object from a vision system camera, determining object orientation, and
defining object position.

• Th distance of an object from a vision system camera can be determined by

stadimetry (direct imaging technique, in which distance is judged by the apparent size
of an object in the field of view of camera after accurate focusing
IMAGE INTERPRETATION

• Image interpretation involves identification of an object based on recognition of its

image.

• Various conclusions are drawn by comparing the results of the analysis with a presorted
set of standard criteria.

• In a binary system, the image is segmented or windowed on the basis of clustering of

white and black pixels.

• Then all groups of black pixels within each segment (called blocks) and groups of white
pixels (called holes) are counted and total quantity is compared with expected numbers
to determine how closely the real image matches the standard image.
MACHINE VISION SYSTEM APPLICATIONS

The machine vision could be used for:

(a) Inspection. The ability of an automated vision system to recognise well-defined

patterns and determine if these patterns match those stored in the system makes machine
vision ideal for inspection of raw materials, parts, assemblies, etc.

(b) Part identification. Machine vision systems due to their ability of part recognition
provide positive identification of an object for decision making purposes.
Part identification applications of machine vision systems range from the familiar
optical character recognition process to part sorting and bin picking operations.

(c) Guidance and Control. Machine vision systems are being used to provide sensory
feedback for real-time guidance and control applications, ranging from visual servoing
of industrial robots and weld seam
) h
 Sony camera
Robo Red LED
cyliooer ri('YJlighl

Panasoni Re; keg

c ected
trigger
sensor
Panasoni
c
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en sensor

ccnttol
panel 24-V JX)wer !,O untt
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Machine
VISIOn