MEASUREMENT OF

FORCE, POWER, FLOW

& TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
 MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
• DIRECT METHODS:
Involves the direct comparison with known
gravitational force on a standard mass, say by
balance.
1. EQUAL ARM BALANCE
2. UNEQUAL ARM BALANCE
3. MULTIPLE LEVER SYSTEM(PLATFORM BALANCE)
4. PENDULUM SCALE 5.ANALYTICAL BALANCE
 EQUAL ARM BALANCE
• The basic principle of operation is based on
moment comparison .
• When an unknown force is applied at one end
of the beam , the mass on the other end of
the beam balances the unknown force .
• The pointer is attached to the center of the
beam , equilibrium condition is indicated by
the pointer.
EQUAL ARM BALANCE
 UNEQUAL ARM BALANCE
• The major disadvantage of equal arm balance
is that it requires a set of weight which is at
least as heavy as the maximum weight to be
measured.
• The unequal arm balance is used to measure
the heavier weight with the help of lighter
weights.
• Load arm is used to apply the load to be
measured , the power arm is used to apply
counter weights to attain equilibrium
UNEQUAL ARM BALANCE
 MULTIPLE LEVER SYSTEM
• Multiple lever system is used for the
measurement of larger weights when
compared to equal and unequal arm balances.
• The measurement of large weight can be done
by using to smaller weights (poise, pan
weight).
• The initial balance is obtained by adjustable
counterpoise
 PENDULUM SCALE
• It is based on the principle of multiple leverage
system.
• The input , a direct force or a force
proportional to weight is transmitted from a
suitable agency and applied to the load rod.
• As the load is applied , the sectors rotate about
pivot as shown in diagram moving the counter
weights outward.
• The motion of the equalizer bar is converted to
indicator movement by a rack & pinion.
PENDULUM SCALE
 INDIRECT METHODS
• It involves a measurement of effort of force
on a body, such as acceleration of a body of
known mass subjected to force.
 ELECTRO MAGNETIC BALANCE
• The main parts of the electro magnetic balance
are photoelectric transducer, an amplifier and a
coil suspended in a magnetic field.
• The coil carries a current while produces an
electromagnetic torque.
• The servo system is used with the coil to
balance the difference between unknown force
and the gravitational force acting on the
standard mass .
ELECTRO MAGNETIC BALANCE
 LOAD CELL

• A load cell is a transducer which converts force

into a measurable electrical output
• This conversion is achieved by the physical
deformation of strain gages which are bonded into
the cell beam and wired into a wheat stone bridge
configuration.
• The types will be seen in further slides.
 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL
It also operate on the force-balance principle.

These devices use multiple dampener chambers

to provide higher accuracy than a hydraulic
device.
Pneumatic load cells are often used to measure
relatively small weights in industries where
cleanliness and safety are of prime concern.
PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL
 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL
• They are force – balance devices measuring
weight as a change in pressure of the internal
filling fluid.
• In a rolling diaphragm type hydraulic load
cell a load or force acting on a loading head is
transferred to a piston that in turn compresses
a filling fluid confined within an elastomeric
diaphragm chamber.
 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL
• As force increases, the pressure of the
hydraulic fluid rises. This pressure can be
locally indicated or transmitted for remote
indication or control.
HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL
 STRAINGUAGE LOAD CELL
• It convert the load acting on them into
electrical signals.
• The gauges themselves are bonded onto a
beam or structural member that deforms
when weight is applied.
• In most cases, four strain gages are used to
obtain maximum sensitivity and temperature
compensation.
STRAINGUAGE LOAD CELL
 C-type Bourdon Tube

When pressure is
applied at the inlet
port the sealed tip
of the tube will
move in proportion
to the applied
pressure.

The small tip movement (1/4 to 1/8 inch) drives the link and gear assembly
moving the pointer across a calibrated scale.
 BELLOWS
• A bellows is a closed vessel with sides that can
expand and contract.
• The position of the bellows without pressure
can be determined by the bellows itself or a
spring. 
• The pressure is applied to the face of the
bellows, and its deformation and its position
depend upon the pressure.
 BELLOWS
• More sensitive than bourdon type gauge.

• Used to measure low pressures

• Brass, phosphor bronze,

stainless steel, beryllium copper etc.
 SPRING BALANCE
• Spring balance is a device used for the direct
measurement of force by using coil spring
deflection.
• It consists of spring at one end and load at
other end.
• The displacement at the free end due to the
applied force is shown by a pointer in scale .
SPRING BALANCE
 PROVING RINGS
• Proving rings are steel ring used for calibration
of testing machines where dead weight
standards cannot be used.
• Deflection of the ring is measured by a
precision micro meter .
• Maximum deflection is of the order of 1% of
the O.D of the ring.
• Range= 2 KN to 2 MN
PROVING RINGS
 PRESSDUCTOR
• It is a magneto elastic type force transducer.
• In this type the permeability of a magnetic
material is altered by the mechanical stress
developed in it.
• When the mechanical force is applied the
permeability in the direction of force is
reduced there by resulting a change in shape
of the magnetic field.
PRESSDUCTOR
 Torque

• Motion in which an entire object

moves is called translation.
• Motion in which an object spins is
called rotation.
• The point or line about which an
object turns is its center of rotation.
• An object can rotate and translate.
 Torque

It is measurement of the tendency of a force to rotate the body

on which it acts about an axis.
 = r x F

VARIOUS METHOD OF MEASUREMENT

1)TORQUE REACTION METHOD

2) PRONEY BRAKE METHOD

3) TORQUE MEASUREMENT USING STRAIN GUGES

4)TORQUE MEASUREMENT USING TORSION BARS

1)TORQUE REACTION METHOD:
Torque transmitted through a shaft of the transmitted torque by
cradle.
Prony brake method
• Prony brake is one of the earliest
method of measuring torque
• A rope or belt is wrapped around a
flywheel carried over a shaft
• The rope passes once around the
flywheel and carries the mass(m)
• The other end is connected to a
spring balance which measures the
tension of the rope (Fs)
• Force arise in the lower end due to
weight(mg)
• Then the torque is given by
T=(mg-Fs)Re
 TORQUE MEASUREMENT USING STRAIN GAUGE

This arrangement is sensitive to bending and axial stress.

The output is increased by using 4gauges.

For taking signals in and out of the rotating shaft slip rings and
brushes are used.

Slip ring arrangement results in noise hence it should be

Measuring the strain induced in a shaft due to applied
torque has been the most common method used for torque
measurement .

Torque transducers based on strain measurement are

normally made by applying strain gauges to a shaft to measure
the shear strain caused by torsion.

The shear stress causes strains to appear at 45 degree to

the longitudinal axis of the shaft.

So the strain gauges must be placed precisely at 45 degree

to the shaft axis.
 Torque measurement using torsion bars
• Angular twist in a shaft due to torque can be found out by using torsion bars. After
measurement of angle the torque can be calculated

Various methods :
1. Optical method 5.Stroboscope method
2. Capacitive method 6.Magnetostrictive method
3. Laser optic method 7.Surface acoustic wave
4. Proximity sensor method method
LASER OPTIC METHOD
The system consists of two black
And white stripped wheels are
Mounted at either end of the
Rotating shaft.

If the torque is applied now to the

Shaft the reflected light is
Modulated.

Therefore it allows the magnitude

Of torque in the shaft to be
Calculated.
PROXIMITY SENSOR METHOD

• Two identical toothed wheels are

fixed on the shaft and the
proximity sensors are used to
measure the torque
O/P Voltage with phase difference α
Torque

The two proximity sensors produce

Output voltage with phase difference
Proportional to torque.

Alternatively, an arrangement using

Photo cells and a light source may be
employed
Stroboscope Method

 The deflection of the shaft

be read off directly Angular
displacement of pointer
relative to scale due to
angular twist
This method is simple and
Expensive.

The accuracy of measurement

Is poor.
Magnetostrictive method
• When torqe is
applied to the shaft
the permeability in
which tension and
compression
direction will change
by equal opposite
voltage directly
propotional to the
applied torque
SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE(SAW) METHOD

• To measure torque two

saw devices are
attached to the shaft
undergoing torsion
• The difference
frequency gives the
measure of torque
 POWER:

Power is the rate (time

interval) at which work is
accomplished.

Expressed as foot pounds per

minute or second pound feet per
minute (torque)

POWER = work
time
 MEASUREMENT OF POWER

• Measurement of power is generally done by

dynamometers
TYPES OF DYNAMOMETER:
1.Absorption dynamometer
2.Driving dynamometer
3.Transmission dynamometer
Mechanical dynamometer

• In this D.C generator

the input mechanical
energy is converted
to electrical energy
• The torque is
measured by a
balancing force fixed
arm.
• Power is measured
by proney brake
method
Eddy current (OR) INDUCTOR DYNAMOMETER

• It consists of a
metal disk which
is rotated in the
flux of a
magnetic field

• Principle:
When a conducting material
Moves through a magnetic field
Voltage is generated which causes
Current flow.
Hydraulic dynamometer
• It uses fluid friction rather
than dry friction for
dissipating the input energy
• Power absorption by a
hydraulic dynamometer
varies with the rotational
speed
• Advantages:
High absorption capacity
Low cost
No additional water is
required for cooling
Overview of Temperature
Measurement
 4.4 Temperature Measurement
• To most people, temperature is intuitive concept that
tells us whether a body is “hot” or “cold”.
• Since pressure, volume, electrical resistance,
expansion coefficient etc., are all related to temperature
through the fundamental molecular concepts.
They change with temperature, and these changes
can be used to measure the temperature.
• The International Temperature Scale serve to define
temperature in terms of observable characteristic of
materials.
•Example : metallurgical proces, melting, making alloys
and heat treatment
 4.2.1 Temperature Scales
• Two temperature scales which are the Fahrenheit
and Celsius scales
• These scales are based on a specification of the
number increment between the freezing point and a
boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure.
• The Celsius scale has 100 units between these
points, while
Fahrenheit scale has 180 units.
• The zero point of both absolute scales represent the
same physical
state, and the ratio of two values is the same,
regardless of the
absolute scale used; i.e.:

(T2/T1)Rankine= (T2/T1)Kelvin

• The boiling point of water at atm is arbitrarily taken as

100o C on Celsius scale and 212o on the Fahrenheit
scale.
•The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at
which its changes its physical state from a liquid to
solid.
 4.4.2 Method of Temperature Measurement

here are two common methods of temperature measurement

Temperature measurement by mechanical effects
Temperature measurement by electrical effects

1) Temperature measurement by mechanical effects

• Devices operating on the basis of a change in mechanical
dimension with a change in temperature.
• Several temperature-measurement devices may be classified
as mechanically operative including:
a) The liquid-in-glass thermometer
b) The bimetallic thermometer
c) Fluid-expansion thermometers
 a) Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
• One of the most common types of temperature-measurement
devices.
• The construction of the device is shown in figure
• - A relatively large bulb at the lower portion of the thermometer holds
the major portion of the liquid, which expands when heated and
rises in capillary tube upon which are etched appropriate scale marking.
- At the top of the capillary tube another bulb is placed to provide a
safety feature in case the temperature range of the thermometer is
inadvertently exceeded.

- Alcohol and mercury are the most commonly used liquids. Alcohol
has advantage that it has a higher coefficient of expansion than
mercury, but it is limited a low-temperature measurement because
it tends boil away at high temperature. Mercury cannot be used
below its freezing point of –38.78oF(-37.8oC).

- The size of the capillary depends on the size of the sensing bulb,
the liquid, and the desired temperature range for the thermometer.
• Operation liquid-in-glass thermometer
- Operate when the bulb is exposed to the environment
whose temperature is to be measured.
- A rise temperature causes the liquid to expand in the
bulb and rise in the capillary, thereby indicating the
temperature.

- It is important to note that the expansion registered by

the thermometer is the difference between the expansion
of the liquid and the expansion of the glass.

- The difference is a function not only of the heat

transfer to bulb from the environment, but also of the heat
conducted into bulb from the stem; the more the stem
conduction relative to the heat transfer from the
environment, the larger the error.
Structure
 Causes of inaccuraties
 Temperature differences
in the liquid
 Glass temperature also
affects
 The amount of
immersion (vs.
calibration)
Liquid-in-glass thermometres
 Liquid-in-glass thermometres
The “traditional” thermometres
Measurement scale from -190 °C to +600 °C
Used mainly in calibration
 Mercury: -39 °C … +357 °C
 Spirit: -14 °C … +78 °C
Figure 4.21 Schematic of a mercury-in-glass thermometer
 (b) Bimetallic strip Thermometer
• Very widely used
• Two pieces of metal with different coefficient of thermal
expansion are bonded together to form the device.

• When the strip is subjected to a temperature higher than

the bonding temperature, it will bend in one direction;
when it subjected to a temperature lower than the
bonding temperature, it will in other direction.
• The thermal-expansion coefficient for some commonly
used materials are given in table.
Bimetallic strips frequently used in simple on-off
temperature control devices (thermostats).
• Movement of the strip has sufficient force
to trip control switches for various devices.

• Advantages:
- low cost
- negligible maintenance expense
- stable operation over extended periods of
time.
Bimaterial thermometres
Figure 4.22 Bimetallic Strip
 Table 4.1 Mechanical properties of some commonly
used thermal material

Material Thermal Modulus of Elasticity

coefficient of
expansion per oC

psi GN/m2

Invar 1.7 x 10-6 21.4 x 106 147

Yellow brass 2.02 x 10-5 14.0 x 106 96.5

Monel 400 1.35 x 10-5 26.0 x 106 179

Inconel 702 1.25 x 10-5 31.5 x 106 217

Stainless-steel type 1.6 x 10-5 28.0 x 106 193

316
 (c) Fluid-expansion Thermometer or
pressure thermometer
• Represent the most economical, versatile and widely used
devices
for industrial temperature-measurement applications.
• The principle of operation is indicated in figure.
• Consist of sensitive bulb containing a liquid, gas, or vapor is
immersed in the environment.
• The bulb is connected to some type of pressure-measuring
device, such as bourdon tube, bellows or diaphragm via
capillary tube.
• An increase in temperature causes the liquid or gas to
expand,thereby increasing the pressure on the gauge.The
pressure is taken as an indication of the temperature.

• The entire system consisting of the bulb, capillary and gauge

may be calibrated directly.
• Capillary tube may be used for remote
measurement.
• Temperature variation along the capillary and
at the pressure-sensing device generally require
compensation, except in the vapor-pressure type
(shown in figure 4.24)
where pressure depend only the temperature
liquid’s free surface located at the bulb.
4.23 Fluid-expansion Thermometer
4.24 Vapor-pressure Thermometer
 Benefits of Infrared Thermometry

• Can be used for

– Moving objects
– Non-contact applications
where sensors would affect
results or be difficult to
insert or conditions are
hazardous
– Large distances
– Very high temperatures
Electrical thermometres
 Electrical thermometres
• Resistive thermometres
– Resistivity is temperature dependent

R (T )  R0 (1  T )

– Materials: Platinum, nickel

 Limitations of electrical
thermometres
• Sensor cable’s resistance and its temperature
dependency
• Junction resistances
• Thermal voltages
• Thermal noise in resistors
• Measurement current
• Non-linear temperature dependencies
• Electrical perturbations
• Inaccuracy at least ± 0.1 °C
Infrared thermometres
 (2) Temperature by Electrical Effects

• Very convenient method because they furnish a

signal that is easily detected, amplified, or used for
control purposes.
• Usually quite accurate when properly calibrated and
compensated.
• Three commonly used
a) Electrical-Resistance Thermometer or Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD).
b) Thermistor
c) Thermocouple
 (a) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

• Quite accurate method of temperature measurement.

• Consists of some type of resistive element which is exposed
to the temperature to be measured.
• The temperature is indicated through a measurement of the
change in resistance of the element.
• Several types of materials may be used such as platinum, nickel,
iron(alloy), copper and tungsten.
• The relationship between temperature and resistance of
conductors can be calculated from the equation:
R =Ro(1 + T)
Where R= resistance of the conductor at temperature (°C)
Ro= resistance at the reference temperature, usually 20oC
= temperature coefficient of resistance
T= difference between the operating and the reference
temperature
 RTDs (Resistance Temperature
Detectors)
• Resistivity of metals is a function of temperature.

• Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide temperature range and has excellent
stability. Nickel or nickel alloys are used as well, but they aren’t as accurate.
• In several common configurations, the platinum wire is exposed directly to air (called a
bird-cage element), wound around a bobbin and then sealed in molten glass, or threaded
through a ceramic cylinder.
• Metal film RTDs are new. To make these, a platinum or metal-glass slurry film is
deposited onto a ceramic substrate. The substrate is then etched with a laser. These
RTDs are very small but aren’t as stable (and hence accurate).
• RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more expensive than thermocouples.
 RTD geometry

From Nicholas & White, Traceable Temperatures.

• Sheathing: stainless steel or inconel, glass, alumina, quartz
• Metal sheath can cause contamination at high temperatures and are
best below 250ºC.
• At very high temperatures, quartz and high-purity alumina are best to
prevent contamination.
 Resistance Measurement
• Several different bridge circuits are used to
determine the resistance. Bridge circuits help
improve the accuracy of the measurements
significantly. Bridge output voltage is a
function of the RTD resistance.
4.25 The construction of RTD
Figure 4.26 : RTD graph for different type conductor
 (b) Thermistor
• Semiconductor device that has a negative
temperature coefficient. f resistance, in contrast to the
positive coefficient displayed by most metals.
• Negative temperature coefficient means, the
resistance decreases as the temperature rises.
• Resistance at 25oC for typical commercial units
ranges from 100 to over 100M.
• Very sensitive device and consistent performance
within 0.01oC however it is highly nonlinear behaviour.
• Since the resistance of the thermistor is very high, the
error due to lead resistance is small compared to that for
RTD.
• In addition, the high resistance of the thermistor
means the smaller current required for measurement.
 (c) Thermocouple
• The most common electrical method of temperature
measurement uses the thermocouple.
• When a pair of wires made from different metals are
joined together at one end as in figure 4.27, a temperature
difference between this and the other end of the wires
produces voltage between the wires.
• The magnitude of the voltage depends on the materials
used for the wires and amount of temperature difference
between the joined end and the other end.
• The junction of the two wires of the thermocouple is
called sensing junction.
• In normal use this junction is place in or on the material
being tested, and the other end of the wire are connected
to the voltage- measuring equipment.
• Since the temperature difference between this
sensing junction and the other ends is the critical
factor, the other ends are either kept at a constant
reference temperature (room temperature).
• When the other ends are kept at room temperature,
the temperature is monitored and the thermocouple
output voltage readings are corrected for any changes
in room temperature.
4.27 Junction of two different metal indicating thermoelectric effects
Figure 4.28
Figure 4.29 Different types of thermocouple
 Outline
• Thermocouples
– overview, reference junction, proper connections, types, special limits of error wire,
time constants, sheathing, potential problems, DAQ setup
• RTDs
– overview, bridges, calibration, accuracy, response time, potentail problems
• Thermistors
• Infrared Thermometry
– fundamentals, emissivity determination, field of view
• Other
– Non-electronic measurement, thin-film heat flux gauge
• Temperature Controllers
• How to Choose
– Standards, cost, accuracy, stability, sensitivity, size, contact/non-contact,
temperature range, fluid type
 Thermocouples
• Seeback effect
– If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both
ends and one end is heated, current will flow.
– If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit
voltage across the wires.
– Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types.
– For small T’s, the relationship with temperature is
linear
V  T may occur.
– For larger T’s, non-linearities
 Making Thermocouple Beads
• Soldering, silver-soldering, butt or spot or beaded gas
welding, crimping, and twisting are all OK.
• The third metal introduced doesn’t effect results as
long as the temperature everywhere in the bead is the
same.
• Welding should be done carefully so as to not degrade
the metals.
• If you consistently will need a lot of thermocouples,
you can buy a thermocouple welder; you stick the two
ends into a hole, hit a button, and the welding is done.
Thermocouple Types

If you do your own

calibration, you can usually
improve on the listed
uncertainties.
 Thermocouple Types, cont.
• Type B – very poor below 50ºC; reference junction temperature not
important since voltage output is about the same from 0 to 42 ºC
• Type E – good for low temperatures since dV/dT () is high for low
temperatures
• Type J – cheap because one wire is iron; high sensitivity but also high
uncertainty (iron impurities cause inaccuracy)
• Type T – good accuracy but low max temperature (400 ºC); one lead is
copper, making connections easier; watch for heat being conducted along
the copper wire, changing your surface temp
• Type K – popular type since it has decent accuracy and a wide
temperature range; some instability (drift) over time
• Type N – most stable over time when exposed to elevated temperatures
for long periods
 Thermo electric laws
1. The application of heat to a single
homogeneous metal in itself is not capable
of producing electric current

2.Thermo electric emf is produced when when

two junctions of 2 dissimilar homogenous
metal kept at different temp ( emf not
affected by temp. gradient)
3. Emf produced by 2 dissimilar metals having
jns. at diff. Temp., emf developed will not be
affected when a third metal is made a part of
ckt. – based on law of intermediate metals
4. Law of intermediate temp.
Eac= Eab + Ebc
Law of intermediate metals :
states that net emf in a circuit remains
unaltered if a third metal is introduced
provided that the two junctions of third
metals are at same temp
 Thermistors
• Thermistors also measure the change in resistance with temperature.
• Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and
1000 times more than thermocouples) and can detect very small
changes in temperature. They are also very fast.
• Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control
and any time very small temperature differences must be detected.
• They are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal oxides).
• The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-
linear.
Thermistor Non-Linearity
 Pyrometres
• Disappearing filament pyrometer
– Radiation from and object in known temperature
is balanced against an unknown target
– The image of the known object (=filament) is
superimposed on the image of target
 Pyrometres
– The measurer adjusts the current of the filament
to make it glow and then disappear
– Disappearing means the filament and object
having the same temperature
Disapperaring filament pyrometer
 Pyrometres
• Two-color pyrometer
– Since emissivities are not usually known, the
measurement with disappearing filament
pyrometer becomes impractical
– In two-color pyrometers, radiation is detected at
two separate wavelengths, for which the
emissivity is approximately equal
Two-colour pyromerer
Flow measurement
 Flow measurement
• Important variable in plant operation
• Measured primarily for determining the
amount of fluid flowing
 Fluid types
• Less or highly viscous
• Clear or opaque
• Clean or dirty
• Wet or dry
• Erosive or corrosive
 Fluid flow type

• Stream line or viscous or laminar

• Turbulent
• Combined viscous or turbulent
 Fluid flow – steam line
• Occurs at low velocities
• All parts flowing in one direction parallel to
walls
• Change in cross section means change in
direction of flow
• Pressure drop ∞ flow velocity
 Fluid flow - turbulent
• Liquid behaves as independent entities
• Pressure varies with Kinetic energy
• Prop. To square of turbulent flow velocity
 Flow meter
• Flow measured as a quantity or rate of flow
• In terms of weight or flow
 Types of flow meters
• Head type meters
• Rota meter (variable –area type)
• Electromagnetic type
• Mechanical type
• Anemometer
• Ultrasonic flow meter
• Vortex flow meter
 Head type flowmeter
• Produce a pressure difference when fluid flow
is maintained through them
• Diff. Pressure propotional to square of flow
rate
• Uses Bernoulli’s theorem
Bernoulli's theorm
 Bernoulli’s theorm
Pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
(at a point) =
pressure head + velocity head + elevation head (
at some other point) + loss due to friction
 Bernoulli’s theorm
For in compressible liquid
Q = EA2 sqrt ( (2gPd)/ ρ)

For compressible liquid

Q = EA2 φ sqrt ( (2gPd)/ ρ1)
 Head flow meter -types
• Orifice meter
• Venturimeter
• Flow nozzle
• Pitot tube
Orifice meters
 Orifice meters
• Head type meter used for large &medium
pipes
• Orifice plate- inserted to pipe to create a
partial restriction to flow
• Pressure before orifice plate rises and
pressure after it reduces but velocity increases
Pressure differnces
• Position where velocity is maximum & static
pressure is min is known as vena contracta
Diff. Pressure calculation
 Orifice meter
• Usually pressure tapping is at a distance D &
D/2 for up stream & down stream
• D- diameter of pipe
• For pipe size 0.05m or more
• Orifice to pipe diameter is 0.6
• Friction & contraction effects are considered.
So new term is incorporated called discharge
co-efficient ©
• C varies with Reynolds's no.

• Q = 2.35 X 10 -3 c d2 E √ (Pd /ρ)

Flow measurement
 Construction
• Normal thickness -0.015 m for pipe with
diameter 0.15 m & 0.003 for larger
• Materials used bronze, stainless steel,
phosphor bronze, gun metal etc.
Orifice plate & flanges
Types of orifice plates
 Types of orifice plate
• If fluid contains suspended materials ,
particles tend to settle down in orifice,- to
avoid this- segmented or ccentric type used
 Advantage
• Simple, reliable
 Disadvantage
• Poor accuracy,
• poor calibration
• maintenance problems
Venturi meter
 Three sections- venturimeter

• Converging conical section at up stream

• Cylindrical throat- provides a panel for
measurement- pressure decreased- flow rate
steady
• Diverging recovery outlet
• Principle- Bernoulli's theorm
dimensions
• Throat to diameter ratio 0.25 to 0.75
• Discharge co-efficient – 0.9 to 1.0
• Made of cast iron, gun metal, stainless steel
• May be circular, square or rectangular
 features
• Calculation similar to orifice plate
• Better than orifice meter
Flow nozzle
Flow nozzle
 Flow nozzle

• Principle- Bernoulli’s theorem

• Simple
• Used in higher velocities, difficult to maintain,
costly
• Used in gases
Pitot tube
 Pitot tube
• Cylindrical probe inserted into fluid
• Velocity head converted into impact pressure
• Diff b/w static pressure & impact pressure-
proptional to flow
By introduction of pitot tube
Pitot tube
 Features
• Easy to install
• No pressure loss
• Sensitive to up stream disturbance
• Not used for sticky and dirty fluids
Thank you