AC TRANSMISSION AC TRANSMISSION

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Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
Performance Equations and Parameters Performance Equations and Parameters
of Transmission Lines of Transmission Lines
A transmission line is characterized by four
parameters:
series resistance (R) due to conductor resistivity
shunt conductance (G) due to currents along
insulator strings and corona; effect is small and
usually neglected
series inductance (L) due to magnetic field
surrounding the conductor
shunt capacitance (C) due to the electric field
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shunt capacitance (C) due to the electric field
between the conductors
These are distributed parameters.
The parameters and hence the characteristics of
cables differ significantly from those of overhead
lines because the conductors in a cable are
much closer to each other
surrounded by metallic bodies such as shields,
lead or aluminum sheets, and steel pipes
separated by insulating material such as
impregnated paper, oil, or inert gas
For balanced steady-state operation, the performance of
transmission lines may be analyzed in terms of single-
phase equivalents.
Fig. 6.1 Voltage and current relationship of a distributed
parameter line
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The general solution for voltage and current at a
distance x from the receiving end (see book: page 202)
is:
where
(6.8)
(6.9)
x R C R x R C R
e
I Z V
e
I Z V
V

+
+
=
2
~ ~
2
~ ~
~
x
R
C
R
x
R
C
R
e
I
Z
V
e
I
Z
V
I

+
=
2
~
~
2
~
~
~
j zy
y
z
Z
C
+ = =
=
The constant Z
C
is called the characteristic
impedance and is called the propagation constant.
The constants and Z
C
are complex quantities. The
real part of the propagation constant is called the
attenuation constant , and the imaginary part the
phase constant .
If losses are completely neglected,
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) resistance (pure
Number Real = =
C
L
Z
C
number Imaginary = = j
For a lossless line, Equations 6.8 and 6.9 simplify to
When dealing with lightening/switching surges, HV
lines are assumed to be lossless. Hence, Z
C
with
losses neglected is commonly referred to as the surge
impedance.
The power delivered by a line when terminated by its
surge impedance is known as the natural load or surge
(6.17)
(6.18)
x I jZ x V V
R C R
sin cos
~ ~
+ =
x
Z
V
j x I I
C
R
R
sin
~
cos
~ ~
|
|

\
|
+ =
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surge impedance is known as the natural load or surge
impedance load.
where V
0
is the rated voltage
At SIL, Equations 6.17 and 6.18 further simplify to
watts
Z
V
SIL
C
2
0
=
x
R
x
R
e I I
e V V

=
=
~
~ ~
(6.20)
(6.21)
Hence, for a lossless line at SIL,
V and I have constant amplitude along the line
V and I are in phase throughout the length of the line
The line neither generates nor absorbs VARS
As we will see later, the SIL serves as a convenient
reference quantity for evaluating and expressing line
performance
Typical values of SIL for overhead lines:
nominal (kV): 230 345 500 765
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nominal (kV): 230 345 500 765
SIL (MW): 140 420 1000 2300
Underground cables have higher shunt capacitance;
hence, Z
C
is much smaller and SIL is much higher than
those for overhead lines.
for example, the SIL of a 230 kV cable is about
1400 MW
generate VARs at all loads
Typical Parameters Typical Parameters
Table 6.1 Typical overhead transmission line parameters
Note: 1. Rated frequency is assumed to be 60 Hz
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Table 6.2 Typical cable parameters
2. Bundled conductors used for all lines listed, except for the 230 kV line.
3. R, x
L
, and b
C
are per-phase values.
4. SIL and charging MVA are three-phase values.
* direct buried paper insulated lead covered (PILC) and high pressure pipe
type (PIPE)
Voltage Profile of a Radial Line at No Voltage Profile of a Radial Line at No- -Load Load
With receiving end open, I
R
= 0. Assuming a
lossless line from Equations 6.17 and 6.18, we have
At the sending end (x = l),
( )
( ) ( ) x sin Z V
~
j I
~
x cos V
~
V
~
C R
R
=
=
=
=
cos V
~
l cos V
~
E
~
R
R S
(6.31)
(6.32)
(6.33)
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where = l. The angle is referred to as the
electrical length or the line angle, and is expressed
in radians.
From Equations 6.31, 6.32, and 6.33
(6.35)
(6.36)

=
cos
x sin
Z
E
j I
cos
x cos
E
~
V
~
C
S
S
As an example, consider a 300 km, 500 kV line with
= 0.0013 rads/km, Z
C
= 250 ohms, and E
S
= 1.0 pu:
Base current is equal to that corresponding to SIL.
Voltage and current profiles are shown in Figure 6.5.
The only line parameter, other than line length, that
affects the results of Figure 6.5 is . Since is
practically the same for overhead lines of all voltage
levels (see Table 6.1), the results are universally
applicable, not just for a 500 kV line.
pu 411 . 0 I
pu 081 . 1 V
3 . 22
rads 39 . 0 0013 . 0 x 300
S
R
=
=
=
= =
o
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applicable, not just for a 500 kV line.
The receiving end voltage for different line lengths:
- for l = 300 km, V
R
= 1.081 pu
- for l = 600 km, V
R
= 1.407 pu
- for l = 1200 km, V
R
= infinity
Rise in voltage at the receiving end is because of
capacitive charging current flowing through line
inductance.
known as the "Ferranti effect".
(a) Schematic Diagram
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Figure 6.5 Voltage and current profiles for a 300 km lossless
line with receiving end open-circuited
(b) Voltage Profile
(c) Current Profile
Voltage Voltage - - Power Characteristics Power Characteristics
of a of a Radial Line Radial Line
Corresponding to a load of P
R
+jQ
R
at the receiving end, we
have
Assuming the line to be lossless, from Equation 6.17
with x = l
Fig. 6.7 shows the relationship between V
R
and P
R
for a
300 km line with different loads and power factors.
The load is normalized by dividing P by P , the natural
*
~
~
R
R R
R
V
jQ P
I

=
|
|

\
|

+ =
*
~
sin cos
~ ~
R
R R
C R S
V
jQ P
jZ V E
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The load is normalized by dividing P
R
by P
0
, the natural
load (SIL), so that the results are applicable to overhead
lines of all voltage ratings.
From Figure 6.7 the following fundamental properties of ac
transmission are evident:
a) There is an inherent maximum limit of power that can be
transmitted at any load power factor. Obviously, there
has to be such a limit, since, with E
S
constant, the only
way to increase power is by lowering the load
impedance. This will result in increased current, but
decreased V
R
and large line losses. Up to a certain point
the increase of current dominates the decrease of V
R
,
thereby resulting in an increased P
R
. Finally, the
decrease in V
R
is such that the trend reverses.
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Figure 6.7 Voltage-power characteristics of a 300 km
lossless radial line
Voltage Voltage - - Power Characteristics Power Characteristics
of a Radial Line of a Radial Line (cont'd) (cont'd)
b) Any value of power below the maximum can be
transmitted at two different values of V
R
. The
normal operation is at the upper value, within
narrow limits around 1.0 pu. At the lower voltage,
the current is higher and may exceed thermal
limits. The feasibility of operation at the lower
voltage also depends on load characteristics, and
may lead to voltage instability.
c) The load power factor has a significant influence
on V
R
and the maximum power that can be
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on V
R
and the maximum power that can be
transmitted. This means that the receiving end
voltage can be regulated by the addition of shunt
capacitive compensation.
Fig. 6.8 depicts the effect of line length:
For longer lines, V
R
is very sensitive to variations
in P
R
.
For lines longer than 600 km ( > 45), V
R
at
natural load is the lower of the two values which
satisfies Equation 6.46. Such operation is likely
to be unstable.
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Figure 6.8 Relationship between receiving end voltage,
line length, and load of a lossless radial line
Voltage Voltage- -Power Characteristic of a Line Power Characteristic of a Line
Connected to Sources at Both Ends Connected to Sources at Both Ends
With E
S
and E
R
assumed to be equal, the following
conditions exist:
the midpoint voltage is midway in phase between
E
S
and E
R
the power factor at midpoint is unity
with P
R
>P
0
, both ends supply reactive power to the
line; with P
R
<P
0
, both ends absorb reactive power
from the line.
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Fig. 6.8 (developed for a radial line) may be used to
analyze how V
m
varies with P
R
.
with the length equal to half that of the actual line,
plots of V
R
shown in Figure 6.8 give V
m
.
Fig. 6.9 Voltage and current phase relationships with E
S
equal to E
R
, and P
R
less than P
o
Power Transfer and Stability Power Transfer and Stability
Considerations Considerations
Assuming a lossless line, from Equation 6.17 with
x = l, we can show that
where = l ll l is the electrical length of line and is the
angle by which E
S
leads E
R
, i.e. the load angle.
If E
S
= E
R
= rated voltage, then the natural load is
(6.51)

sin
sin
C
R S
R
Z
E E
P =
C
R S
O
Z
E E
P =
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and Equation 6.51 becomes
The above is valid for synchronous as well as
asynchronous load at the receiving end.
Fig. 6.10(a) shows the - -- - P
R
relationship for a 400 km
line.
For comparison, the V
m
- P
R
characteristic of the line is
shown in Fig. 6.10(b).

sin
sin
O
R
P
P =
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Figure 6.10 P
R
- and V
m
-P
R
characteristics of 400 km lossless
line transmitting power between two large systems
Reactive Power Requirements Reactive Power Requirements
From Equation 6.17, with x = l and E
S
= E
R
= 1.0, we can
show that
Fig. 6.11 shows the terminal reactive power
requirements of lines of different lengths as a function
of P
R
.
Adequate VAR sources must be available at the two
ends to operate with varying load and nearly
constant voltage.
( )

sin
cos cos
2
C
S
S R
Z
E
Q Q

=
=
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constant voltage.
General Comments
Analysis of transmission line performance
characteristics presented above represents a highly
idealized situation
useful in developing a conceptual understanding of
the phenomenon
dynamics of the sending-end and receiving-end
systems need to be considered for accurate
analysis.
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Figure 6.11 Terminal reactive power as a function of power
transmitted for different line lengths
Loadability Characteristics Loadability Characteristics
The concept of "line loadability" was introduced by
H.P. St. Clair in 1953
Fig. 6.13 shows the universal loadability curve for
overhead uncompensated lines applicable to all
voltage ratings
Three factors influence power transfer limits:
thermal limit (annealing and increased sag)
voltage drop limit (maximum 5% drop)
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steady-state stability limit (steady-state stability
margin of 30% as shown in Fig. 6.14)
The "St. Clair Curve" provides a simple means of
visualizing power transfer capabilities of transmission
lines.
useful for developing conceptual guides to
preliminary planning of transmission systems
must be used with some caution
Large complex systems require detailed assessment
of their performance and consideration of additional
factors
"St. Clair Curve" "St. Clair Curve"
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Figure 6.13 Transmission line loadability curve
Stability Limit Calculation for Line Stability Limit Calculation for Line
Loadability Loadability
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Figure 6.14 Steady state stability margin calculation
Factors Influencing Transfer of Active Factors Influencing Transfer of Active
and Reactive Power and Reactive Power
Consider two sources connected by an inductive
reactance as shown in Figure 6.21.
representation of two sections of a power system
interconnected by a transmission system
a purely inductive reactance is considered
because impedances of transmission elements
are predominately inductive
effects of shunt capacitances do not appear
explicitly
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Figure 6.21 Power transfer between two sources
(a) Equivalent system diagram
(b) Phasor diagram
= load angle
= power factor angle
The complex power at the receiving end is
Hence,
Similarly,
(

+
=
(
(

= = + =
jX
E jE E
E
jX
E E
E I E jQ P S
R S S
R
R S
R R R R R
sin cos
~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
*
X
E E E
Q
X
E E
P
R R S
R
R S
R
2
cos
sin

=
=

(6.79)
(6.80)
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Similarly,
Equations 6.79 to 6.82 describe the way in which
active and reactive power are transferred
Let us examine the dependence of P and Q transfer
on the source voltages, by considering separately
the effects of differences in voltage magnitudes and
angles
X
E E E
Q
X
E E
P
R S S
S
R S
S

cos
sin
2

=
=
(6.81)
(6.82)
From Equations 6.79 to 6.82, we have
With E
S
> E
R
, Q
S
and Q
R
are positive
With E
S
< E
R
, Q
S
and Q
R
are negative
As shown in Fig. 6.22,
transmission of lagging current through an
inductive reactance causes a drop in receiving
end voltage
(a) Condition with = 0:
0 = =
S R
P P
( ) ( )
X
E E E
Q
X
E E E
Q
R S S
S
R S R
R

=

= ,
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transmission of leading current through an
inductive reactance causes a rise in receiving
end voltage
Reactive power "consumed" in each case is
Figure 6.22 Phasor diagrams with = 0
( )
2
2
XI
X
E E
Q Q
R S
R S
=

=
(a) E
S
>E
R
(b) E
R
>E
S
From Equations 6.79 to 6.82, we now have
With positive, P
S
and P
R
are positive, i.e., active
power flows from sending to receiving end
(b) Condition with E
S
= E
R
and 0
( )
2
2
2
2
1
cos 1
sin
I X
X
E
Q Q
X
E
P P
R S
S R
=
= =
= =

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In each case, there is no reactive power transferred
from one end to the other; instead, each end
supplies half of Q consumed by X.
Figure 6.23 Phasor diagram with E
S
= E
R
(b) < 0
(a) > 0
We now have
If, in addition to X, we consider series resistance R
of the network, then
(c) General case applicable to any condition:
( )
2
2
2 2
cos 2
sin cos
XI
X
XI
X
E E E E
Q Q
jX
E jE E
I
R S R S
R S
R S S
= =
+
=
+
=

(6.83)
(6.84)
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The reactive power "absorbed" by X for all
conditions is XI
2
. This leads to the concept of
"reactive power loss", a companion term to active
power loss.
An increase in reactive power transmitted increases
active as well as reactive power losses. This has an
impact on efficiency and voltage regulation.
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
R
R R
loss
R
R R
loss
E
Q P
R I R P
E
Q P
X I X Q
+
= =
+
= = (6.85)
(6.86)
Conclusions Regarding Transfer of Active and Conclusions Regarding Transfer of Active and
Reactive Power Reactive Power
The active power transferred (P
R
) is a function of
voltage magnitudes and . However, for satisfactory
operation of the power system, the voltage magnitude
at any bus cannot deviate significantly from the
nominal value. Therefore, control of active power
transfer is achieved primarily through variations in
angle .
Reactive power transfer depends mainly on voltage
magnitudes. It is transmitted from the side with higher
voltage magnitude to the side with lower voltage
magnitude.
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Reactive power cannot be transmitted over long
distances, since it would require a large voltage
gradient to do so.
An increase in reactive power transfer causes an
increase in active as well as reactive power losses.
Although we have considered a simple system, the general
conclusions are applicable to any practical system, In fact, the basic
characteristics of ac transmission reflected in these conclusions
have a dominant effect on the way in which we operate and control
the power system.
Appendix to Section on AC Transmission Appendix to Section on AC Transmission
1. Copy of Section 6.4 from the book Power System
Stability and Control
provides background information related to
power flow analysis techniques
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