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Vout Z
F
VS ZS
Vout ZF
1
VS ZS
Active low-pass filter
Vout Z
A( j ) F
VS ZS
1 1 1
Max Amplification: RF/RS
Z F RF 1
jC F Low pass factor: 1/(1+ jωRFCF)
RF Cut-off frequency (-3dB = 1/√2)
ZF
1 jRF C F when ωRFCF=1, ie ω0=1/RFCF
RF / RS
A( j )
1 jRF C F
jRF CS
A( j )
(1 jRF C F )(1 jRS CS )
vOUT VS
So what's the use of positive feedback?
Comparator:
Comparator compares two input voltages, vref and vsignal.
if vsignal> vref the output voltage is high
if vsignal< vref the output voltage is low
Amplifier saturates when v+-v- >10μV
(inverted output)
vref
Small noise fluctuations generate spurious additional pulses before/after the main pulse
The Schmitt Trigger:
Comparator with positive feedback VS R1
in this state: v
R1 R2
vo VS 15V so vi v v
when v 7.5
Try R1=R2,
VS=+/-15V
VS R1
in this state: v
R1 R2
vo VS 15V so vi v v
when v 7.5
• Inverting amplifier
RF
Gain 1
RS
What does this circuit do?
X
Y Z
2vi R
• Also, at point Z, vo vi iR vi
R ZC
VXZ
2vi 2vi R
i vo vi iR vi
R ZC R ZC
vo 2R R ZC 2R ZC R
• Now, gain g 1
vin R ZC R ZC ZC R
1
R
jC 1 jRC
g
R 1 jRC
1
j C
• Multiply top and g
(1 jRC )(1 jRC )
bottom by (1-jωRC): (1 jRC )(1 jRC ) • None of the amplifiers
change the amplitude:
1 2 R 2C 2 2 jRC j
Ae g A 1
1 2 R 2C 2
2RC
b
tan
1 2 R 2C 2
2RC
a 1 2 R 2C 2
1 2 R 2C 2
1 2 R 2C 2
What does this circuit do?
R ì
ï0
ì 0 if w RC ® 0 ï
tan
2RC ï ï p
1 2 R 2C 2 tan j í- ¥ if w RC =1 Þ j =í-
ï ¥ if w RC ® ¥ ï 2
g 1 î ï p
ï+
î 2
• The circuit is a phase shifter!
• Output voltage is a phase shifted version of the input
• Vary R to vary the degree of phase shift. Nice audio effect – but also…
• Very useful for communications applications (e.g Electronically steerable microwave
antenna arrays: PATRIOT= "Phased Array TRack to Intercept Of Target" )
What does this circuit do?
4) Don't exceed the maximum differential voltage limit on the inputs: this can
destroy the opamp
Frequency response limits
• An ideal opamp has open-loop (no
feedback) gain A=
• More realistically, it is typically ~105-106 at
DC, dropping to 1 at a frequency, fT=1-10
MHz
• Above the roll-off point, the opamp acts
like a low-pass filter - and introduces a 90º
phase shift between input and output
• At higher frequencies, as the open-loop
gain approaches 1, the phase shift
increases
• If it reaches >180º degrees, and the open
loop gain is >1, this results in positive
feedback and high frequency oscillations
• The term "phase margin" refers to the
difference between the phase shift at the
frequency where the gain=1 (fT) and 180º
Frequency response limits
• Open loop cut-off frequency, f0 (also known as open loop bandwidth)
is usually small (typically 100Hz) to ensure that the gain is <1 at a
phase shift of 180º
• Closed-loop gain (gain of amplifier with feedback) begins dropping
when open loop gain approaches RF/RS (in the case of the inverting
amp)
• Cut off frequency will be higher for lower closed-loop gain circuits
Inverting amplifier
Slew rate (or rise time)
• The maximum rate of change of the output of an opamp is known as
the slew rate (in units of V/s)
dvo
S0
dt max
• The slew rate affects all signals - not just square waves
• For example, at high enough frequencies, a sine wave input is
converted to a triangular wave output due to limited slew rate
Slew rate example
• Consider an inverting amplifier, gain=10, built using an opamp with a
slew rate of S0=1V/μs.
• Input a sinusoid with an amplitude of Vi=1V and a frequency, ω.
dvo dv0
AVi sin(t ) AVi S 0
dt dt max
dvo
10 106 105
dt max