Data Acquisition

Chapter 2
 Data Acquisition
• 1st step: get data
– Usually data gathered by some
geophysical device
– Most surveys are comprised of
linear traverses or transects
• Typically constant data spacing
• Perpendicular to target
• Resolution based on target
• Best for elongated targets
– When the data is plotted (after
various calculations have been
made): Profile
 Grids
• When transects are combined
a grid can be formed.
– Good for round or blob-shaped
targets
• Or if target geometry is unknown
– Useful for making contour
maps
– Allows transects to be created
in multiple directions
 Data Reduction
• Often the raw data collected is not
useful.
– Data must be converted to a useful form
• Removing the unwanted signals in
data: Reduction
• Targets are often recognized by an
“anomaly” in the data
– Values are above or below the
surrounding data averages.
• Not all geophysical targets produce
spatial anomalies.
– E.g. seismic refraction produces travel
time curves  depth to interfaces
• Also a type of reduction.
 Signal and Noise
• Even after data is reduced, a
profile may not reveal a clear
anomaly due to noise.
– Noise: Unwanted fluctuations in
measured data.
• May be spatial or temporal
• What causes noise?
– Signal: The data you want, i.e. no Magnetic or Gravity profile
noise.
• Noise can be removed using
mathematical techniques
– Stacking
– Fourier Analysis
– Signal Processing
 Stacking
• Stacking is useful when:
– Noise is random
– Signal is weak
– Instrument is not sensitive
• If noise is random
– Take multiple readings
– Sum the readings
– Noise cancels out
• Destructive Interference
– Signal should add
• Constructive Interference
• Stacking improves signal to noise
ratio
– Commonly used with numerous
techniques.
 Resolution
• Even if you have a good
signal to noise ratio,
detection of your target
depends on your
resolution.
– Know what you are looking
for before you begin
– Know the limits of your
data resolution
 Modeling
• Most geophysical data is
twice removed from
actual geological
information
– Reduced data is modeled
• Models
– Aim to describe a specific
behavior or process
– Are only as complex as
the data allows
• Occam’s Razor: “Entities
should not be multiplied
unnecessarily”
 Model Types
GPS Station Motions

Depth = D
Fault Slip

• In the most basic sense models come in two flavors:

– Forward model
• Given some set of variables, what is the result.
• I.e. you input the “cause” and some “effect” is produced
– Inverse model
• Given some measurements, what caused them
• You know the “effect”, try to determine the “cause”
• Often involves mathematical versions of “guess and check”
 Model Types
Analog Model
• Models also come in several flavors
based on technique
– Conceptual Model
• Models an idea…no math/physical parts
– Analog Model
• A tangible model “scaled” to reproduce
geologic phenomena
– Empirical Model
• Based on trends in data Empirical Model
– Analytical Model
• Solves an equation
• Usually deals with simple systems
– Numerical Model
• Computer-based approximations to an
equation.
– Thousands, millions, or billions of
calculations
• Can handle complex systems.

From Wells & Coppersmith 1994

 Non-Uniqueness of Models
• Typically, multiple models
can fit data
– So any given model is non-
unique
– Distinguish between models
based on
• Match with geologic data
• Model with least
parameters (most simple)
• Data has limited resolution
– Surveys must be finite
– “Blurs the picture”
– Omission of detail
emphasizes key features
 Geologic Interpretation
• After data is collected and
modeling is complete the
results must be interpreted
into the geological context.
• Use all available data. Material Density (gm/cm3)
– Don’t only look, when you can hear
Air ~0
and touch!
Water 1
• Interpretations are also typically
non-unique Sediments 1.7-2.3
– Many geologic materials have similar Sandstone 2.0-2.6
properties. Shale 2.0-2.7
– Best interpretations use all available Limestone 2.5-2.8
data, geologic, geophysical, chemical,
etc… Granite 2.5-2.8
Basalts 2.7-3.1
Metamorphic
2.6-3.0
Rocks