+

Microelectronics
+ 
Integrated
Circuits
 Data storage – provided by
memory cells
 Data processing – provided by
gates
 Data movement – the paths among
components are used to move data
from memory to memory and from
memory through gates to memory
 Control – the paths among
components can carry control
signals
A computer consists of gates,
memory cells, and
interconnections among these
elements
 The gates and memory cells are
constructed of simple digital
electronic components
 Exploits the fact that such
components as transistors, resistors,
and conductors can be fabricated
from a semiconductor such as silicon
 Many transistors can be produced at
the same time on a single wafer of
silicon
 Transistors can be connected with a
processor metallization to form
circuits
+
Wafer,
Chip,
and
Gate
Relationship
+
Chip Growth
Moore’s Law

1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that could be

put on a single chip was doubling every year

Consequences of Moore’s law:

The pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months in the 1970’s but has sustained that rate
ever since
The cost of computer logic and memory circuitry has fallen at a
dramatic rate
+ LSI
Large
Scale
Later Integration

Generations
VLSI
Very Large
Scale
Integration

ULSI
Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large
Microprocessors Scale
Integration
+ Semiconductor Memory
+
Microprocessors
 The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
 More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer
chips were needed to construct a single computer processor

 1971 Intel developed 4004

 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip
 Birth of microprocessor

 1972 Intel developed 8008

 First 8-bit microprocessor

 1974 Intel developed 8080

 First general purpose microprocessor
 Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

a. 1970s Processors

b. 1980s
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

c. 1990s Processors

d. Recent Processors
 A Top-Level
View of Computer
Function and
+
Interconnection
+
Computer Components
 Contemporary computer designs are based on concepts developed by
John von Neumann at the Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton

 Referred to as the von Neumann architecture and is based on three

key concepts:
 Data and instructions are stored in a single read-write memory
 The contents of this memory are addressable by location, without regard to
the type of data contained there
 Execution occurs in a sequential fashion (unless explicitly modified) from
one instruction to the next

 Hardwired program
 The result of the process of connecting the various components in the
desired configuration as form of programming. The resulting “program” is
in the form of hardware and is termed a hardwired program.
+
Hardware
and Software
Approaches
 Software Software

●
A sequence of codes or instructions
●
Part of the hardware interprets each instruction and generates control signals
Provide a new sequence of codes for each new program instead of rewiring
I/O
●

the hardware
Components

Major components:
+

●
CPU
●
Instruction interpreter
●
Module of general-purpose arithmetic and logic functions
●
I/O Components
●
Input module
●
Contains basic components for accepting data and instructions and converting them into an internal form of signals usable by the system
●
Output module
●
Means of reporting results
 Memory address Memory buffer MEMORY
register (MAR) register (MBR)
Specifies the Contains the data
address in to be written into
memory or
memory for the
receives the data
next read or
read from
write memory
MAR

I/O buffer register

I/O address (I/OBR)
+ register (I/OAR) Used for the
Specifies a exchange of
particular data between
an I/O module MBR
I/O device and the CPU
 Computer
Components:
Top Level
View
+
Basic Instruction Cycle
+
Fetch Cycle
 At the beginning of each instruction cycle the processor fetches an
instruction from memory

 The program counter (PC) holds the address of the instruction to be

fetched next

 The processor increments the PC after each instruction fetch so that

it will fetch the next instruction in sequence

 The fetched instruction is loaded into the instruction register (IR)

 The instruction contains bits that specify the action the processor is
to take. The processor interprets the instruction and performs the
required action
Action Categories
●
Data transferred to or
●
Data transferred
from a peripheral
from processor to
device by transferring
memory or from between the processor
memory to processor and an I/O module

Processor- Processor-
memory I/O

Data
Control
processing
●
An instruction may ●
The processor
specify that the may perform some
sequence of arithmetic or logic
execution be altered operation on data
+
+
Example
of
Program
Execution
+
Instruction Cycle State Diagram