RESEARCH AS A

SCIENTIFIC PROCESS
Research process in flow chart
Define research Design research
problem

Collect data
Review concepts
Theories and
previous research
findings Analyze data

Formulate
hypothesis Interpret &
report
Characteristics of Science & Research

Purposiveness
Rigor
Testability
Replicability
Precision & Confidence
Objectivity
Generalizability
Parsimony

3
Hallmarks of Scientific
Research
1. Purposiveness

 It has to start with a definite aim or

purpose.
 eg. How employees’ commitment to the
organization can be increased? (The focus
is on increasing employee commitment).
 Increase employee commitment will
translate into less absenteeism and
increased performance levels.
 Thus it has a purposive focus.
2. Rigor
A good theoretical base and sound methodological
design would add rigor to the purposive study.
Rigor adds carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree
of exactitude in research.
Example:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the
level of commitment. If solely on the basis of their
responses the manager reaches several conclusions on
how employee commitment can be increased, the whole
approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It
would lack rigor for the following reasons:
1. Based on few employees
2. Bias and incorrectness
3. There might be other influences on commitment
which are ignored and are important for a
researcher to know
Thus, Rigor involves good theoretical base and
thought out methodology.
These factors enable the researcher to collect
the right kind of information from an appropriate
sample with the minimum degree of bias and
facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered.
This supports the other six too.
3. Testability
After random selection manager and researcher
develops certain hypothesis on how employee
commitment can be enhanced, then these can
be tested by applying certain statistical tests to
the data collected for the purpose.

The researcher might hypothesize that those

employees who perceive greater opportunities
for participation in decision making would have
a higher level of commitment.
4. Replicability
It means that it can be used again if similar
circumstances prevails.

Example:
The study concludes that participation in decision
making is one of the most important factors that
influences the commitment, we will place more faith
and credence in these finding and apply in similar
situations. To the extent that this does happen, we
will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our
research.
 5. Precision and Confidence
Precision
 Precision refers to the closeness of the
findings to “reality” based on a sample.
 It reflects the degree of accuracy and
exactitude of the results of the sample.

Example: If a supervisor estimated the number

of production days lost during the year due to
absenteeism at between 30 and 40, as against
the actual of 35, the precision of his estimation is
more than if he had indicated that the loss of
production days was somewhere between 20
and 50.
Confidence

 Confidence refers to the probability that

our estimations are correct.
 That is, it is not merely enough to be
precise, but it is also important that we
can confidently claim that 95% of the
time our results would be true and there
is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.
 This is also known as confidence level;
significance level of .05 (p = .05)
 6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the
interpretation of the results of data analysis
should be objective; that is, they should be
based on the facts of the findings derived from
actual data, and not on our subjective or
emotional values.

Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that

greater participation in decision making will
increase organizational commitment and this was
not supported by the results, it makes no sense if
the researcher continues to argue that increased
opportunities for employee participation would still
help!
 7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applicability of the
research findings in one organization setting to
other settings.

Example: If a researcher’s findings that

participation in decision making enhances
organizational commitment are found to be true
in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and
service organizations, and not merely in the
particular organization studied by the
researcher, then the generalizability of the
findings to other organizational settings in
enhanced. The more generalizable the research,
the greater its usefulness and value.
 8. Parsimony

Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems

that occur, and in generating solutions for the
problems, is always preferred to complex research
frameworks that consider an unmanageable number
of factors.

For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work

situation are identified, which when changed would
raise the organizational commitment of the
employees by 45%, that would be more useful and
valuable to the manager than if it were recommended
that he should change 10 different variables to
increase organizational commitment by 48%.
Research process in flow chart
Define research Design research
problem

Collect data
Review concepts
Theories and
previous research
findings Analyze data

Formulate
hypothesis Interpret &
report
Research Problem
A problem is an interrogative sentence or
statement that asks: what relation exists
between two or more variables?
Criteria of problem statements
A problem should express a relation
between two or more variables
The problem should be stated clearly and
unambiguously in question form
Problem statement should be such as to
imply possibilities of empirical testing
Why is productivity in Japan so much
higher than in India ?
What factors were responsible for the
higher labor productivity of Japan’s
manufacturing industries during the
decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s
manufacturing industries?
Which of the following statements is phrased as a
research problem?

The purpose of the study is to determine:

a. how students can overcome test anxiety.

b. if there is a difference in the mean gain scores in

reading achievement between students taught
word skills and those taught comprehensive skills.
Which of the following statements is NOT a
research problem as stated?

The purpose of this study is to describe and

analyze the effect of new admission
standards on grade point averages during
the first year of study of the 2011 in-coming
class of MBA Tech?

This study investigates if there is a

relationship between teacher questioning
style and retention of learning.

This study investigates faculty morale.

MANAGEMENT DILEMMA (Level 1)

MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS (Level 2)

RESEARCH QUESTIONS (Level 3)

LEVEL 1 -- The top management’s
concerns about the business . These are
the symptoms of the actual problem .

LEVEL 2 -- The managers try to raise

the issues underlying the symptom .

LEVEL 3 -- The researcher tries to

conceptualize the symptoms in the form
of basic issues or causes .
 Some Examples …..

Management Dilemma ….. (In terms of

observations on a general level)

Declining sales, Increasing employee

turnover, Large no. of defective
products, Large no. of consumer
complaints …..
 Continued…..

Management Questions ….. (In terms

of questions to be answered but not
suggesting kind of research to be
undertaken)

Why are the sales declining? Are we on

the right track? Are we meeting our
goals? Why are the departmental costs
on the rise?
 Continued…..

Research Questions….. (In terms of

fact finding & information gathering
questions in the form of unstructured
exploration)
What factors are contributing to the
failure of XYZ dept? How good is the
customer service? What kind of
complaints are recurrent? What is the
system of quality control in XYZ dept?
 Continued…..

Investigative Questions ….. (In terms of

more specific questions after a careful
informal exploration)

How attractive are our services? Which

region is receiving more complaints ? Is
there enough manpower to handle the
cases? What is the system of redressal?
Are there any specific factors influencing
employee performance?
 Continued…..

Measurement Questions….. (In terms

of specific information to be sought)

How shall we measure the quality of

our service ? Which areas (of quality)
need to be covered ? What information
about the employees is required
(morale, training, experience, health
etc.) ? How do we get this info?
 The Management-Research
Question Hierarchy
1.Management Dilemma
 What symptoms cause management concern?
 What environmental stimuli raise mgmt. interest?
2.Management Question
 How can mgmt. eliminate the negative symptoms?
 How can it fully capitalize on an opportunity?
3.Research Questions
 What plausible courses of action are available to mgmt. to
correct the problem or take advantage of the opportunity
and which should be considered?
 The Management-Research
Question Hierarchy

4.Investigative Questions
 What does the manager need to know to choose the best
alternative from the available courses of action?
5.Mesurement Questions
 What should be asked or observed to obtain the
information the manager needs?
6.Management Decision
 What is the recommended course of action, given the
research findings?
Formulating the Research
Question for the case

Discover management dilemma

Define mgmt. question
Define Research Question?
 Case Exercise
CHILDCO You work for CHILDCO, a corporation that is
considering the acquisition of a toy manufacturer. The
senior vice president for development asks you to head
a task force to investigate six companies that are
potential candidates. You assemble a team composed
of representatives from the relevant functional areas.
Pertinent data are collected from public sources
because of the sensitive nature of the project. You
examine all of the following: company annual reports;
articles in business journals, trade magazines, and
newspapers; financial analysts’ assessments; and
company advertisements. The team members then
develop summary profiles of the candidate firms based
on the characteristics gleaned from the sources. The
final report highlights the opportunities and problems
that acquisition of the target firm would bring to all
areas of the business.
What is the managers
dilemma?
In CHILDCO the senior vice president
for development must make a proposal
to the president or possibly the board of
directors about whether to acquire a toy
manufacturer and, if one is to be
acquired, which one of the six under
consideration is the best candidate.
 What must the research
accomplish?
the researcher needs to know what information
should be evaluated in order to value a company
Knowing the type of information needed, the
researcher in CHILDCO identifies sources of
information, like trade press articles and annual
reports.
Other reporting studies of a less sensitive nature
might have the researcher interviewing sources
Steps of Science & Research

Identification of a Problem
Defining Objectives
Theoretical framework
Hypotheses
Tool construction
Data collection
Data analysis
Conclusion --- Generalization
 Research – Scientific Process
We may conclude that ---

The characteristics of Science & Research

are same.
The steps of a scientific process &
those of a research process are same.

Hence we call Research a Science and

Research Process as a Scientific
Process.
 What is a Good Research ?
Purpose clearly defined
Research process detailed
Research design thoroughly planned
High ethical standards applied
Limitations frankly revealed
Adequate analysis done
Findings presented unambiguously
Conclusions justified
Researcher’s experience reflected
Research process in flow chart
Define research Design research
problem

Collect data
Review concepts
Theories and
previous research
findings Analyze data

Formulate
hypothesis Interpret &
report
 Research Framework

Copyright © 2003 John W ile y & S ons , Inc. S e ka ra n /R ES EARCH 4E FIGURE 6.1

38
Variable
Variable is any factor that we are studying
Three types of classification
Dependent variable
 Variable of primary interest to the researcher, also
called criterion variable
 The one that is not manipulated
Independent variable
 One that influences the dependent variable
 One manipulated by the researcher

An independent variable is the presumed cause of

the dependent variable, the presumed effect
Variable
Variable is any factor that we are studying
Moderating variable
 Can be a second independent variable that is included
because it is believed to have a significant contributory
effect on the originally stated IV-DV relationship.
 eg.The switch to a commission from a salary
compensation system (IV) will lead to increased sales
productivity (DV) per worker, especially among younger
workers (MV).
 The age difference can influence the relationship
between the compensation system and sales productivity
Variable
Variable is any factor that we are studying
Extraneous variable (Control)
 Many extraneous variables exist that might
conceivably affect a given relation or problem
 Some can be treated as independent or
moderating variables but most can be safely
ignored.
 Eg. With new customers (CV), a switch to a
commission from a salary compensation system
(IV) will lead to increased sales productivity (DV)
per worker, especially among younger workers
(MV).
Variable
Variable is any factor that we are studying
Intervening variable
 The factor which theoretically affects the observed
phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured or
manipulated.
 Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the
independent and moderator variables on the
observed phenomenon
 Eg. The switch to a commission compensation
system (IV) will lead to increased sales
productivity (DV) by increasing overall
compensation (IVV)
Variable
Variable is any factor that we are studying
Active variable
 Any variable that is manipulated
 Eg. different methods of teaching, differently
rewarding the employees for a task etc.
Attribute variable
 One that cannot be manipulated by the researcher
 Eg. Human characters like intelligence, sex,
socioeconomic status etc.
Active-attribute distinction is general, flexible and
useful
Variable
Variable is any factor that we are studying
Continuous variable
 Variable capable of taking on an ordered set of
values within a certain range
 Eg.rank order, scores obtained etc.
Categorical variable
 Variables are categorized or assigned
numbers/values
 Individuals are categorised by the defining
property
 Problem
Delta Airlines: With airline regulation, there were price wars among
the various airlines that cut costs in different ways. According to
reports, Delta Airlines faced charges of air-safety violations when
there were several near collisions in mid-air, and one accident that
resulted in 137 deaths in 1987. Four important factors that seem to
have influenced these are poor communication among the cockpit
crew members themselves, poor coordination between ground staff
and cockpit crew, minimal training given to the cockpit crew, and
management philosophy that encouraged a decentralised structure.
It would be nice to know if these factors did indeed contribute to
the safety violations, and if so to what extent.
Schematic Diagram for the theoretical framework

Communication among
cockpit members

Communication between
Ground control and cockpit

Air Safety
Decentralization
Decentralization Violations

Training of cockpit crew

Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Schematic Diagram for the theoretical framework

Communication among
cockpit members

Communication between Air Safety

Ground control and cockpit Violations

Decentralization
Decentralization

Training of cockpit crew

Independent Variables Moderating Dependent Variable

Variable
Schematic Diagram for the theoretical framework

Communication among
cockpit members

Communication between
Ground control and cockpit

Air Safety
Decentralization Violations

Training of cockpit crew Nervousness and

Diffidence

Independent Intervening
Variables variable Dependent Variable
 Types of Thinking

Inductive ----- From loose data to

universal relationships which are
organized in the form of Laws, Theories
(Derivation of theory)

Deductive ----- From Laws & Rules to

facts ( Application of rules to specific
situations)
 SalePro’s Management Research
Question Heirarchy
Declining sales is one of the most common symptoms
serving as a stimulus for a research project, especially a
continuing pattern that is unexplained. SalePro, a large
manufacturer of Industrial goods, faces this situation.
Exploration reveals that sales infact should not be
declining in South and Northeast. Environmental factors
there are as favorable as in the growing regions.
Subsequent exploration leads management to believe that
the problem is in one of the 3 areas: salesperson
compensation, product formulation, or trade advertising.
Further exploration has the management narrowing the
focus of research to alternative ways to alter the sales
compensation system, which leads to a survey of all sales
personal in the affected regions
 Mindwriter Corporation
CompleteCare Program
MindWriter Corporation has recently created a service and repair
program, CompleteCare, for its portable laptop/notebook
computers. This program promises to provide a rapid response to
customers service problems. It is currently experiencing a
shortage of trained technical operators in its telephone center.
The package courier, contracted to pick up and deliver customers
machines to CompleteCare, has provided irregular execution. MW
has also experienced parts availability problems for some
machine types. Recent phone logs at the call center show
complaints about CompleteCare. Management desires
information on the programs effectiveness and its impact on
customer satisfaction to determine what should be done to
improve the CompleteCare program for MW product repair and
servicing.