Lecture # 2

Introduction to Arguments

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 1

 1. Logic and its terms
2. Introduction to Arguments
Getting 3. Introduction to Conclusions
started with 4. Introduction to Evidences

Logical  5. Introduction to Flaws

6. Anatomy of a Logical Reasoning Question
Reasoning
7. Practice

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 2

  What is an argument?
 An argument is a set of statements made up, at
minimum, of the following parts:
Introduction  A main conclusion: This statement is a claim that expresses
what the arguer is trying to persuade to accept, whether or
to Arguments not it actually is true.
 Evidence: Also known as premises or support, the arguer
provides these statements in order to show us that the
conclusion is true.

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 3

  Main conclusion:
 The claim that is backed by the rest of the argument as a whole
 Backed by support, but does not itself support any other claim
 The claim that the argument as a whole is trying to establish

Main & Sub  Sub-conclusion:

Conclusions 

Also called intermediate or subsidiary conclusions
Claims that function as both conclusion and support
 A conclusion that supports a further conclusion (or conclusions)
 Backed by support, and simultaneously support a different claim

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 4

 1.Conclusion + Evidence
 Here’s an example:
 Sarah will probably receive a job offer, because she has ten years of
experience.

Argument  Which piece is the conclusion, and which piece is the evidence?
Types Conclusion: Sarah will probably receive a job offer
cont.
Because/Support/Evidence: She has ten years of experience.
Explanation: Since the answer to the question, “Why do you believe
Sarah will probably receive a job offer?” is logically, “I believe that
because she has ten years of experience”, then we can feel
confident that we designated the correct conclusion and evidence.

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 5

 2. Conclusion + Evidence + Intermediate Conclusion
 Intermediate Conclusion: is a claim that acts both as a conclusion and
as evidence. This conclusion leads to yet another conclusion.
 For that reason, the intermediate conclusion can’t be the main
conclusion.
Argument  For Example: Sarah will probably receive a job offer, because she has
Types ten years of experience. That means that she’ll soon pay me back for
the money I lent her.
cont.  Explanation: Sarah receiving a job offer is the reason to believe that
she’ll pay me back. So Sarah receiving a job offer is the conclusion for
her having ten years of experience, but it’s also the evidence for the
prediction that she’ll soon pay me back.

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 6

 3. Conclusion + Evidence + Background Information
 Background information is provided in order to “set the stage” and
familiarize/orient us to the situation.
 Our original argument again: Sarah will probably receive a job offer,
because she has ten years of experience.
 You might be asking yourself, “Who’s Sarah? What job? Experience in
what?” and that’s where background information comes in. Here’s a
Argument longer version, including background information:
 Explanation:
Types  One of this neighborhood’s residents has been complaining about his
cont. sister Sarah having been unemployed for so long. She’s applying for
programming jobs at many companies, but she only received her first
interview invite last week. She’ll probably receive a job offer because she
has ten years of experience. In a job market like the current one,
anything over eight years of experience gives a candidate a great
advantage.

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 7

  Primary goals on argument-based questions is to rephrase an
argument in its “conclusion, because support” form in order to
keep it simple.
 It’s rare that background information holds information critical to
your ability to complete the task.
 When we read logical reasoning arguments critically, we read with
Summary of a purpose, and most of the time, our purpose will be to break the
argument into its components so that we can answer the
Arguments question!
 In most cases, how do we identify the main conclusion?
 In most cases, how do we identify the relevant evidence?
 See in the next slide

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 8

 Conclusion Evidence
 Thus
 Therefore
 Because
 Hence
 Since
 So
 After all
 Conclude
Signal  It follows that
 On the grounds that

Words  As a result
 Given that
 For
 Clearly
 As shown by
 Obviously
 Nevertheless-still
 Nonetheless-on the other hand

Instructor: Sumera Kazi, Lecturer DMS Isra University 9