Statistics For Managers Using Microsoft® Excel 5th Edition: Basic Probability

Statistics for Managers
Using Microsoft® Excel

5th Edition
Chapter 4
Basic Probability
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 4-1
Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn:
 Basic probability concepts

 Conditional probability
 To use Bayes’ Theorem to revise
probabilities
Definitions
 Probability: the chance that an uncertain

event will occur (always between 0 and 1)
 Event: Each possible type of occurrence or
outcome
 Simple Event: an event that can be described
by a single characteristic
 Sample Space: the collection of all possible
events
Types of Probability
There are three approaches to assessing the probability of an

uncertain event:
1. a priori classical probability: the probability of an event is based on

prior knowledge of the process involved.
2. empirical classical probability: the probability of an event is based

on observed data.
3. subjective probability: the probability of an event is determined by

an individual, based on that person’s past experience, personal opinion,
and/or analysis of a particular situation.
Calculating Probability
1. a priori classical probability

X number of ways the event can occur
Probability of Occurrence  
T total number of possible outcomes
2. empirical classical probability

number of favorable outcomes observed
Probability of Occurrence 
total number of outcomes observed
These equations assume all outcomes are equally likely.
Example of a priori
classical probability
Find the probability of selecting a face card (Jack,
Queen, or King) from a standard deck of 52 cards.
X number of face cards

Probability of Face Card  
T total number of cards
X 12 face cards 3
 
T 52 total cards 13
Example of empirical
classical probability
Find the probability of selecting a male taking statistics
from the population described in the following table:
Taking Not Taking Total

Stats Stats
Male 84 145 229
Female 76 134 210
Total 160 279 439
number of males taking stats 84

Probability of Male Taking Stats    0.191
total number of people 439
Examples of Sample Space
The Sample Space is the collection of all possible
events
ex. All 6 faces of a die:
ex. All 52 cards in a deck of cards

ex. All possible outcomes when having a child:
Boy or Girl
Events in Sample Space
 Simple event
 An outcome from a sample space with one
characteristic
 ex. A red card from a deck of cards
 Complement of an event A (denoted A/)
 All outcomes that are not part of event A
 ex. All cards that are not diamonds
 Joint event
 Involves two or more characteristics simultaneously
 ex. An ace that is also red from a deck of cards
Visualizing Events in
Sample Space
 Contingency Tables: Ace Not Total
Ace
Black 2 24 26
Red 2 24 26
Total 4 48 52
 Tree Diagrams: 2
Ace
c k Card
Bla Not an Ace 24
Full Deck
of 52 Cards Ace 2
Sample Red C
ard
Space Not an
A ce 24
Definitions
Simple vs. Joint Probability
 Simple (Marginal) Probability refers to the
probability of a simple event.
 ex. P(King)
 Joint Probability refers to the probability of
an occurrence of two or more events.
 ex. P(King and Spade)
Definitions
Mutually Exclusive Events
 Mutually exclusive events are events that cannot occur
together (simultaneously).
 example:
 A = queen of diamonds; B = queen of clubs
 Events A and B are mutually exclusive if only one card is
selected
 example:
 B = having a boy; G = having a girl
 Events B and G are mutually exclusive if only one child is
born
Definitions
Collectively Exhaustive Events
 Collectively exhaustive events
 One of the events must occur
 The set of events covers the entire sample space
 example:
 A = aces; B = black cards; C = diamonds; D = hearts
 Events A, B, C and D are collectively exhaustive (but not
mutually exclusive – a selected ace may also be a heart)
 Events B, C and D are collectively exhaustive and also
mutually exclusive
Computing Joint and
Marginal Probabilities
 The probability of a joint event, A and B:
number of outcomes satisfying A and B

P( A and B) 
total number of elementary outcomes
 Computing a marginal (or simple) probability:

P(A)  P(A and B1 )  P(A and B2 )    P(A and Bk )
 Where B1, B2, …, Bk are k mutually exclusive and

collectively exhaustive events
Example:
Joint Probability
P(Red and Ace)
number of cards that are red and ace 2
 
total number of cards 52
Ace Not Total

Ace
Black 2 24 26
Red 2 24 26
Total 4 48 52
Example:
Marginal (Simple) Probability
P(Ace)
2 2 4
 P( Ace and Re d)  P( Ace and Black )   
52 52 52
Ace Not Ace Total
Black 2 24 26
Red 2 24 26
Total 4 48 52
Joint Probability Using a
Contingency Table
Event
Event B1 B2 Total
A1 P(A1 and B1) P(A1 and B2) P(A1)
A2 P(A2 and B1) P(A2 and B2) P(A2)
Total P(B1) P(B2) 1
Joint Probabilities Marginal (Simple) Probabilities
Probability
Summary So Far
 Probability is the numerical measure of the 1 Certain
likelihood that an event will occur.
 The probability of any event must be

between 0 and 1, inclusively
 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1 for any event A.
.5
 The sum of the probabilities of all mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive
events is 1.
 P(A) + P(B) + P(C) = 1
 A, B, and C are mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive
0 Impossible
General Addition Rule
General Addition Rule:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then

P(A and B) = 0, so the rule can be simplified:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

for mutually exclusive events A and B
General Addition Rule
Example
Find the probability of selecting a male or a statistics student
from the population described in the following table:
Taking Stats Not Taking Stats Total
Male 84 145 229
Female 76 134 210
Total 160 279 439
P(Male or Stat) = P(M) + P(S) – P(M or S)

= 229/439 + 160/439 – 84/439 = 305/439
Conditional Probability
 A conditional probability is the probability of one event,
given that another event has occurred:
P(A and B) The conditional

P(A | B) 
P(B) probability of A given
that B has occurred
P(A and B) The conditional

P(B | A)  probability of B given
P(A) that A has occurred
Where P(A and B) = joint probability of A and B

P(A) = marginal probability of A
P(B) = marginal probability of B
Computing Conditional
Probability
 Of the cars on a used car lot, 70% have air
conditioning (AC) and 40% have a CD
player (CD). 20% of the cars have both.
 What is the probability that a car has a CD
player, given that it has AC ?
 We want to find P(CD | AC).
Probability
CD No CD Total
AC 0.2 0.5 0.7
No 0.2 0.1 0.3

AC
Total 0.4 0.6 1.0
P(CD and AC) .2

P(CD | AC)    .2857
P(AC) .7
Given AC, we only consider the top row (70% of the cars). Of
these, 20% have a CD player. 20% of 70% is about 28.57%.
Probability: Decision Trees
.2
.4
Given CD or A C P(CD and AC) = .2
Has
no CD: . 4
D)= Does
P (C have not .2 P(CD and AC/) = .2
C D AC
H as
.4
All
Cars .5
Doe
not s .6
h P (C AC P(CD/ and AC) = .5
CD ave D /)= Ha s
.6
D oe s
h av e n o t .1 P(CD/ and AC/) = .1
AC .6
Probability: Decision Trees
.2
.7
Given AC or C D P(AC and CD) = .2
Has
no AC: . 7
C )= Does
P (A ha ve n o t . 5 P(AC and CD/) = .5
A C CD
H as
.7
All
Cars .2
Doe
not s .3
h P (A CD P(AC/ and CD) = .2
AC ave C /)= Ha s
.3
D oe s
h av e n o t .1 P(AC/ and CD/) = .1
CD .3
Statistical Independence
 Two events are independent if and only if:
P(A | B)  P(A)
 Events A and B are independent when the

probability of one event is not affected by the
other event
Multiplication Rules
 Multiplication rule for two events A and B:
P(A and B)  P(A | B) P(B)
 If A and B are independent, then P(A | B)  P(A)
and the multiplication rule simplifies to:

P(A and B)  P(A) P(B)
 Suppose a city council is composed of 5
democrats, 4 republicans, and 3 independents.
Find the probability of randomly selecting a
democrat followed by an independent.
P(I and D)  P(I | D) P(D)  (3/11)(5/12)  5/44  .114

 Note that after the democrat is selected (out of 12
people), there are only 11 people left in the
sample space.
Marginal Probability Using
 Marginal probability for event A:
P(A)  P(A | B1 ) P(B1 )  P(A | B2 ) P(B2 )    P(A | Bk ) P(Bk )
 Where B1, B2, …, Bk are k mutually exclusive and

Bayes’ Theorem
 Bayes’ Theorem is used to revise previously

calculated probabilities based on new
information.
 Developed by Thomas Bayes in the 18th
Century.
 It is an extension of conditional probability.
Bayes’ Theorem
P(A | Bi )P(Bi )
P(Bi | A) 
P(A | B1 )P(B1 )  P(A | B2 )P(B2 )    P(A | Bk )P(Bk )
where:
Bi = ith event of k mutually exclusive and
A = new event that might impact P(Bi)
Bayes’ Theorem
Example
 A drilling company has estimated a 40% chance of
striking oil for their new well.
 A detailed test has been scheduled for more
information. Historically, 60% of successful wells
have had detailed tests, and 20% of unsuccessful
wells have had detailed tests.
 Given that this well has been scheduled for a
detailed test, what is the probability that the well
will be successful?
Bayes’ Theorem
Example
 Let S = successful well
U = unsuccessful well
 P(S) = .4 , P(U) = .6 (prior probabilities)
 Define the detailed test event as D
 Conditional probabilities:
 P(D|S) = .6 P(D|U) = .2
 Goal: To find P(S|D)
Bayes’ Theorem
Example
Apply Bayes’ Theorem:
P(D | S)P(S)
P(S | D) 
P(D | S)P(S)  P(D | U)P(U)
(.6)(.4)

(.6)(.4)  (.2)(.6)
.24
  .667
.24  .12
So, the revised probability of success, given that this

well has been scheduled for a detailed test, is .667
Bayes’ Theorem
Example
 Given the detailed test, the revised probability of a successful
well has risen to .667 from the original estimate of 0.4.
Prior Conditional Joint Revised

Event Prob.
Prob. Prob. Prob.
S (successful) .4 .6 .4*.6 = .24 .24/.36 = .667
U (unsuccessful) .6 .2 .6*.2 = .12 .12/.36 = .333
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, we have
Discussed basic probability concepts.

Sample spaces and events, contingency tables, simple
probability, and joint probability
Examined basic probability rules.
General addition rule, addition rule for mutually
exclusive events, rule for collectively exhaustive events.
Defined conditional probability.
Statistical independence, marginal probability, decision
trees, and the multiplication rule
Discussed Bayes’ theorem.

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Statistics For Managers Using Microsoft® Excel 5th Edition: Basic Probability

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Statistics for Managers

Using Microsoft® Excel

In this chapter, you will learn:

 Basic probability concepts

 Probability: the chance that an uncertain

There are three approaches to assessing the probability of an

1. a priori classical probability: the probability of an event is based on

2. empirical classical probability: the probability of an event is based

3. subjective probability: the probability of an event is determined by

1. a priori classical probability

2. empirical classical probability

These equations assume all outcomes are equally likely.

X number of face cards

Taking Not Taking Total

number of males taking stats 84

ex. All 52 cards in a deck of cards

number of outcomes satisfying A and B

 Computing a marginal (or simple) probability:

 Where B1, B2, …, Bk are k mutually exclusive and

Ace Not Total

Ace Not Ace Total

A1 P(A1 and B1) P(A1 and B2) P(A1)

A2 P(A2 and B1) P(A2 and B2) P(A2)

Total P(B1) P(B2) 1

Joint Probabilities Marginal (Simple) Probabilities

 The probability of any event must be

If A and B are mutually exclusive, then

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Taking Stats Not Taking Stats Total

Male 84 145 229

Female 76 134 210

Total 160 279 439

P(Male or Stat) = P(M) + P(S) – P(M or S)

P(A and B) The conditional

P(A and B) The conditional

Where P(A and B) = joint probability of A and B

AC 0.2 0.5 0.7

No 0.2 0.1 0.3

P(CD and AC) .2

 Two events are independent if and only if:

 Events A and B are independent when the

 Multiplication rule for two events A and B:

P(A and B)  P(A | B) P(B)

 If A and B are independent, then P(A | B)  P(A)

and the multiplication rule simplifies to:

P(I and D)  P(I | D) P(D)  (3/11)(5/12)  5/44  .114

P(A)  P(A | B1 ) P(B1 )  P(A | B2 ) P(B2 )    P(A | Bk ) P(Bk )

 Where B1, B2, …, Bk are k mutually exclusive and

 Bayes’ Theorem is used to revise previously

So, the revised probability of success, given that this

Prior Conditional Joint Revised

S (successful) .4 .6 .4*.6 = .24 .24/.36 = .667

U (unsuccessful) .6 .2 .6*.2 = .12 .12/.36 = .333

Discussed basic probability concepts.

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