AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH

Presented by Xia Yinyin

Kendraxia@163.com
Vertical structure of the atmosphere
 Aerosols
An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid
particles or liquid droplets in a gas.
 Aerosols are microscopic solid particles and
liquid droplets

Examples :clouds
smog and smoke ---- air pollution
Mist Fog Haze Smoke Smog

What is the difference ?h

 Mist
Mist is a phenomenon of small droplets
suspended in air.
The only difference is visibility between mist
and fog.
Visibility :fog <one kilometre (~1,093 yards)
mist> one kilometre
 Fog

Fog is a collection of liquid water droplets or

ice crystals suspended in the air at or near
the Earth's surface
Sunlight filters through a thin layer of
fog on a crisp winter morning in
Albuquerque, New Mexico
 Haze
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric
phenomenon where dust, smoke and other
dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky.
Seen from afar (e.g. approaching airplane)
and depending upon the direction of view
with respect to the sun, haze may appear
brownish or bluish,
while mist tends to be bluish-grey.
Haze over Kuala Lumpur

Los Angeles skyline, showing

haze.
 Smoke
Smoke the cloud of black, gray, or white
gases and dust that is produced by burning
something.
 Smog
Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a
portmanteau of smoke and fog.
Classic smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke
and sulfur dioxide.
Modern smog does not usually come from coal but
from vehicular and industrial emissions that are
acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form
secondary pollutants that also combine with the
primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
 What is air pollution
The result of emission into the
air of hazardous substances at
a rate that exceeds the
capacity of natural processes
in the atmosphere to convert,
deposit, or dilute them.
Natural Sources
Man-Made Sources
 Man-Made sources

Traffic pollution Industrial pollution

Space heating
 Air Pollution Sources
 Anthropogenic sources
----stationary ( industries)
- point sources (single industry)
- area sources (clusture of point sources and
urban homes)
----non-stationary ( transport)
 The stationary sources
----line sources (vehicles , aeroplanes and
railways etc)
 Types of pollutants
Primary pollutants
   Primary pollutants are directly emitted from
identifiable sources
Ash from a volcanic eruption
CO from a motor vehicle exhaust
SO2 from factories.
 Primary Air Pollutants
Sulphur Oxides(SOx)
Nitrogen Oxides(NOx )
Carbon monoxide(CO)
Volatile organic compounds(VOCs)
Particulate matter(PM)
Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)
Ammonia(NH3)
Radioactive Pollutants
 Types of pollutants
Secondary Pollutants
Secondary pollutants are produced in
the atmosphere when certain chemical
reactions take place among primary
pollutants.
Ground level O3 —from nitrogen oxide &
volatile organic compounds.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - NOx and VOCs.

 Primary Pollutants

CO CO2 Secondary Pollutants

SO2 NO NO2
Most hydrocarbons SO3
Most suspended particles HNO3 H2SO4
H2O2 O3 PANs
Most NO3− and SO42− salts
Sources Natural Stationary

Mobile

Fig. 18-4, p. 472

 Photochemical smog

A photochemical smog is the chemical

reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in
the atmosphere, which leaves airborne
particles (called particulate matter) and
ground-level ozone.
 PANS and other pollutants
Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs)
Ozone (O3)

Oxygen (O2)
Nitric oxide (NO)
+
Oxygen atom (O)
Water vapor
(H2O)
Hydrocarbons UV radiation
Peroxyacyl
nitrates Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
(PANs)
Oxygen (O2)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Oxygen (O2) Burning fossil fuels

Nitrogen (N) in fossil fuel Fig. 18-9, p. 477

Nitrogen oxides are released by nitrogen and
oxygen in the air reacting together under
high temperature such as in the exhaust of
fossil fuel-burning engines in cars, trucks,
coal power plants, and industrial
manufacturing factories.
VOCs are released from man-made sources
such as gasoline (petrol), paints, solvents,
pesticides, and biogenic sources, such as
pine and citrus tree emissions.
This noxious mixture of air pollutants can
include the following:
 nitrogen oxides, such as nitrogen dioxide
 tropospheric ozone
 volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
 peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN)
 aldehydes (R'O)
Photochemical smog is considered to be a
problem of modern industrialization.
It is present in all modern cities, but it is more
common in cities with sunny, warm, dry
climates and a large number of motor
vehicles.
Because it travels with the wind, it can affect
sparsely populated areas as well.
Characteristic coloration for smog in California in the beige
cloud bank behind Golden Gate Bridge. The brown coloration is
due to the NOx in the photochemical smog
Los Angeles in 1944
Los Angeles-type smog
Factors that affect air pollution
 Emissions (traffic, industrial, domestic)
 Geography (terrain)
 Weather conditions (rain, winds, humidity)
 Season
 Time of day
 Population density
 www.aw-bc.com/Withgott

Weather
 depends on the fronts
– cold→ thunderstorms
– warm→ light rain
 affected by the pressure
systems
– high→ fair to dry weather
– low→ results in clouds and precipitation
Why?
 Temperature inversions
 Temperature inversions represent a situation in
which the atmosphere is very stable and the mixing
depth is significantly restricted.
 Surface temperature inversions form because the
ground is a more effective radiator than the air
above.
This is an example
of a generalized
temperature profile
for a surface
inversion.

Temperature-profile
changes in bottom
diagram after the
sun has heated the
surface.
Inversion
 Thermal Inversion
 cooler air appears under warmer air
 prevents normal convective circulation to
occur
 pollution is trapped under the inversion
layer creating health problems like asthma
– killer smog in London
– asthma in San Joaquin valley
Smoke rising in Lochcarron, Scotland is stopped
by an overlying layer of warmer air
Winter smoke in Shanghai with a clear border-layer
for the vertical air-spread.
 Consequences of a thermal
inversion
The air becomes stiller, hence the air becomes
murky because dust and pollutants are no
longer lifted from the surface.
This can become a problem in cities where
many pollutants exist.
Inversion effects occur frequently in big cities such
as Mumbai, India; Los Angeles, California;
Mexico City ; Sao Paulo, Brazil; Santiago, Chile;
and Tehran, Iran, but even also in smaller cities
like Oslo, Norway and Salt Lake City, Utah,
Boise, Idaho which is closely surrounded by hills
and mountains that together with the inversion
effect bottle-caps the air in the city.
During a severe inversion, trapped air
pollutants form a brownish haze that can
cause respiratory problems. The Great
Smog, one of the most serious examples of
such an inversion, occurred in London in
1952 and was blamed for thousands of
deaths.
The Great
Smog 1952
Sulfuric acid droplets
with pH 1.4~1.9;
reduced visibility, as
low as 5m;

lasted for 5 days

and extended over
a radius of 50 km
The great smog
caused 4,000
deaths in 1952.
 London Smog

The gray air in industrial cities in cold

winter areas, caused from burning fossil
fuel. In 1952, industrial smog held in
place by a thermal inversion caused the
4,000 deaths in London.
 1873 268 unexpected deaths London

 1880, 2,200 Londoners died coal smoke from

home heating and industry combined to form a
toxic smog of SO2 and particles

 London "fog" of 1952, in which some 4,000

died, were associated with widespread use of
dirty fuels.--Great Smog of 1952
The Great Smog of '52 or Big Smoke was
a severe air pollution event that affected
London, England, during December 1952.
A period of cold weather, combined with a
temperature inversion and windless
conditions, collected airborne pollutants
mostly from the use of coal to form a thick
layer of smog over the city. It endured from
Friday 5 to Tuesday 9 December 1952, and
then dispersed quickly after a change of
weather.
 The Meuse Valley fog
1930 Dec ,Meuse Valley, Belgium
 60 deaths
 6000 ill
a combination of industrial air pollution and
climatic conditions.
sulfur dioxide or oxidation products of that
compound
 The 1948 Donora smog
Donora, Pennsylvania, USA
70 deaths
7000 ill

Between Oct 26 and Oct 31, 1948 a temperature

inversion trapped industrial effluent (air pollution)
from the American Steel and Wire plant and
Donora Zinc Works. "In three days, 20 people
died. After the inversion lifted, another 50 died.
Hydrogen fluoride and Sulfur dioxide
 JAN 1931
– Manchester and Salford, England
 692 deaths
 NOV 1953
– New York, NY
 165 deaths

 Unknown number ill

 Air pollution effects

 Acid rain
 The ozone depletion
 Global warming
 Atmospheric Brown Cloud
The Indian Asian brown cloud is a layer of
air pollution that recurrently covers parts of
South Asia, namely the northern Indian
Ocean, India, and Pakistan.
 A dense blanket of polluted air hovers over
central eastern China. The 'Giant Brown
Cloud' is an unhealthy mix of ozone,
smoke, and other particles from human
activities .
 Asian brown cloud
 The Asian brown cloud is created by a
range of airborne particles and pollutants
from combustion (e.g., woodfires, cars, and
factories), biomass burning and industrial
processes with incomplete burning. The
cloud is associated with the winter monsoon
(November/December to April) during
which there is no rain to wash pollutants
from the air
Health Effects of Air Pollution
 Exposure
 Chronic
 Acute
– Air Pollution Episode
Bhopal disaster
Dependent on local conditions
 Epidemiological studies
– Statistical relationship between
environmental factors and human
disease
– Challenging
Smog Episode in NYC, 1963
 Toxicological studies National Archives, photo by Chester Higgins

 Pollutant interactions
 Respiratory System
 Via inhalation/respiratory as
well as eye/skin
 Three parts of respiratory
system
– Naso-pharyngeal (HAR)
– Tracheo-bronchial (TBR)
– Pulmonary-Alveolar (GER)
 Lungs  portal of entry
– Purpose
– GER SA > 75 m2

Dr. Owens, UF ABE2062 Course

http://faculty.abe.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_20/lect_20.htm
 EPA Standards
 carbon monoxide (CO)
 sulphur dioxide (SO2)
 nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 tropospheric ozone (O3)
 particulate matter
 lead (Pb)
 What is Particulate Matter?
Particulate matter (PM)
describes a wide variety of
airborne material. PM pollution
consists of materials (including
dust, smoke, and soot), that are
directly emitted into the air or
result from the transformation of
gaseous pollutants. Particles come
from natural sources (e.g.,
volcanic eruptions) and human
Image from http://www.epa.gov/eogapti1/
module3/distribu/distribu.htm
activities such as burning fossil
fuels, incinerating wastes, and
smelting metals.
Sources of PM and PM Precursors

Mobile Sources Stationary Sources

(vehicles) (power plants, factories)
VOCs, NO2, PM NO2, SO2, PM

Area Sources Natural Sources

(drycleaners, gas stations) (forest fires, volcanoes)
VOCs PM
 Particulate Matter: Size Matters
Particles > 10 m are trapped
in the nose and throat and
never reach the lungs.
Particles 5 ~10 m are
removed by physical
processes in the throat.
Particles < 5 m reach the
bronchial tubes, while
particles 2.5 m in
diameter or smaller are
breathed into the deepest
portions of the lungs.
Image: PM2.5. By D. Hershey. From New York
State Department of Environmental Conservation.
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dar/baqs/micro
/two.html
 Criteria Air Pollutants:
Particulate Matter
 Two possible fates  Methods of Deposition
– Impaction*
 Factors affecting fate – Interception*
– Diffusion*
– Aerodynamic properties
– Electrostatic Attraction
– Physiological behavior – Gravitational Settling

Adapted from Universite Laval

http://www.theses.ulaval.ca/
2004/21789/ch01.html
 Criteria Air Pollutants:
Particulate Matter
 Health effects
– Wheezing and coughing
– Heart attacks and death
 TSP (Total Suspended Particles)
– In presence of SO2, direct correlation between TSP and hospital
visits for bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, pneumonia, and cardiac
disease
– ~60,000 deaths from PM (AHA, American Heart Association )
– 1% increase in mortality for every 10 mg/m3 increase in PM
(AHA)
 Respiratory mortality up 3.4% for the same (AHA)
 Cardiovascular mortality up 1.4% for the same (AHA)
 RSP, respirable suspended
particulates
 PM10 (<10 m, coarse (2.5-10 m) and fine particles)
– Anything larger deposited in the HAR (nasal-pharangycal)
 PM2.5 (<2.5 m, fine particles)
– Most serious health effects in alveolar/gas exchange region
 shift in regulation focus
– May adsorb chemicals & intensify their effects
– Toxic or carcinogenic – pesticides, lead, arsenic, radioactive
material
 8% increase in lung cancer for each 10 g/m3 increase of PM2.5
 All fine particles
RSP, respirable suspended particulates also
include: all fine particles
0.001 to 1 micrometer
Carbon black
Combustion nuclei
Oil smoke
Photochemical smog
Tobacco smoke
 Adverse Health Effects
 Asthma
– 14 Americans die/day of asthma
 3x greater than 20 yrs ago
– Increased health care costs
 Particulate episodes
– Inversions (covered officially later)
– In presence of SO2
– 1930: Meuse Valley in Belgium- 60 deaths
– 1948: Donora, PA- 20 deaths
– 1952: “Lethal London Smog”- 12,000 deaths
 Adverse Health Effects
 Premature death
 Lung cancer
 Exacerbation of COPD
 Development of chronic lung disease
 Heart attacks
 Hospital admissions and ER visits for heart and lung disease
 Respiratory symptoms and medication use in people with
chronic lung disease and asthma
 Decreased lung function
 Pre-term birth
 Low birth weight
 Increasing Evidence of
Cardiovascular Effects
Until the mid 1990s, most
research focused on the
association of PM
exposure with respiratory
disease. Since then, there
has been growing
evidence of
cardiovascular health
effects from PM.
Source: Pope and Dockery, JAWMA, 2006
 Integrating Toxicology,
Epidemiology and Clinical Studies
Toxicological, clinical and
epidemiological studies
have increased
understanding of the
mechanism of action by
which PM leads to
mortality and lung and
heart disease.

Sun et al. JAMA, 2005

 Health Effects
Mechanism:

1. PM leads to lung irritation which leads to

increase permeability in lung tissue;
2. PM increases susceptibility to viral and
bacterial pathogens leading to pneumonia in
vulnerable persons who are unable to clear
these infections;
3. PM aggravates the severity of chronic lung
diseases causing rapid loss of airway function
 PM causes inflammation of lung tissue,
resulting in the release of chemicals that
impact heart function;
 PM causes changes in blood chemistry
that results in clots that can cause heart
attacks.
 Criteria Air Pollutants:
Particulate Matter
 Very small solids/liquids that remain suspended
 Causes: materials handling, combustion processes, gas
conversion reactions
 Main sources:

Pollutant Primary Stds. Averaging Times Secondary Stds.

Particulate Matter Revoked Annual (Arith.  

(PM10) Mean)
150 µg/m3 24-hour  
Particulate Matter 15.0 µg/m3 Annual (Arith. Same as Primary
(PM2.5) Mean)
35 µg/m3 24-hour  
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
----Coal Gas
 colorless
 odorless
 incomplete combustion
 in the U.S. 78% of it comes from vehicles
 in China it comes from vehicles and stoves
 small concentrations can be lethal to most
living organisms
From wikipedia
 Parts Per Million (PPM)
 In science and engineering, the parts-per
notation is a set of pseudo units to describe small
values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities
e.g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these
fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they
are pure numbers with no associated units of
measurement.
ppm (parts-per-million, 10–6), ppb (parts-per-billion,
10–9), ppt (parts-per-trillion, 10–12) and ppq (parts-
per-quadrillion, 10-15).
 One part per million (ppm) denotes one part per
1,000,000 parts,
 one part in 106, 1/1,000,000 * 100% = 0.0001% (or 1%
= 10,000 ppm)
 a value of 1 × 10−6

This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 liters

(roughly the fuel tank capacity of a compact car) or
about 32 seconds out of a year
 Criteria Air Pollutants: CO
 Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas
 “Silent Killer”
 Review…
– Cause: incomplete combustion
– Source: transportation sector, energy production, residential heating units, some
industrial processes
 Ambient concerns addressed by NAAQS (National
Ambient Air Quality Standards)
 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration ) (50 ppm avg over 8-hour period)
Averaging
Pollutant Primary Stds. Secondary Stds.
Times
Carbon 9 ppm 8-hour None
Monoxide (10 mg/m3)
35 ppm 1-hour None
(40 mg/m3)
 Criteria Air Pollutants: CO
Reacts with hemoglobin in blood
– Forms carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) rather than
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
– Prevents oxygen transfer
Toxic effects on humans
– Low-level: cardiovascular and neurobehavior
– High-level: headaches/nausea/fatigue to
possible death
– Oxygen deficient people esp. vulnerable CDC CO Poisoning
http://www.cdc.gov/co/faqs.htm

(anemia, chronic heart or lung disease, high

altitude residents, smokers)
 Cigarette smoke: 400-450 ppm
 smoker’s blood 5-10% HbCO vs 2% for non-smoker
 Criteria Air Pollutants: CO
 Concern in homes especially - Install CO monitor!
– No indoor home regulations
 >70 ppm  flu-like symptoms (w/out fever)
 150-200 ppm  disorientation, drowsiness, vomiting
 >300 ppm  unconsciousness, brain damage, death
– 500 Americans die/year from unintentional CO poisoning

Treatment: fresh air, oxygen

therapy, hyperbaric chamber
Parrish Medical Center
http://www.parrishmed.com/programs_
services/wound_hyperbaric.cfm
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
 colorless
 pungent odor
 power plants of coal
 once in the atmosphere SO2 reacts forming
SO3 and later forming H2SO4
 H2SO4 forms acid rain

London 1952
 Ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4]

Ammonia (NH3)

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Water vapor (H2O) Carbon monoxide (CO)

and
Sulfur trioxide (SO 3 ) carbon dioxide (CO2)

Oxygen (O2)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Burning coal and oil

Oxygen (O2)

Sulfur (S) in Carbon (C) in

coal and oil coal and oil Stepped Art
Fig. 18-8, p. 476
 Criteria Air Pollutants: SOx
 Cause: Burning fuel that contains sulfur
 Source: Electric power generation, diesel trucks
 Gas and particulate phase
 Soluble and absorbed by respiratory system
 Short-term intermittent exposures
– Bronchoconstriction (temporary breathing difficulty)
– E/N/T irritation
– Mucus secretion
 Long-term exposures
– Respiratory illness
– Aggravates existing heart disease
 Intensified in presence of PM
– London Smog were combination of the two
 Nitrogen Oxides (NOX )
 contributes to smog
 NO2 is foul smelling, redish
brown gas
Los Angeles

 NOx cause acid rain

 product of combustion
engines
 vehicles produce 50% of the
U.S. NOX
 electricity production and
industry the rest
 Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx
 Cause: Fuel combustion at high temps
 Source: mobile and stationary combustion sources
 Prolonged exposure  pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema,
and higher LRI (lower respiratory tract illness) in
children
 Toxic effects at 10-30 ppm
– Nose and eye irritation
– Lung tissue damage
 Pulmonary edema (swelling)
 Bronchitis
 Defense mechanisms
– Pneumonia
– Aggravate existing heart disease
Ozone (O3)
 product of sunlight + heat + NOX + carbon
chemicals
 health risk because of its instability→ O2 + Oxygen
ion
 oxygen ion can cause tissue damage
 tissue damage can cause respiratory problems

Los Angeles
 Criteria Air Pollutants: Ozone
 Cause: product of photochemical rxns
 Source: cars, power plants, combustion, chemical
industries
 Acute Health effects
– Severe E/N/T (ear/nose/throat) irritation
– Eye irritation at 100 ppb
– Interferes with lung functions
 Coughing at 2 ppm
 Chronic Health Effects
– Why do we use ozone as disinfectant for WW?

– Irreversible, accelerated lung damage

Lead (Pb)
 particulate matter
 enters food chain
 can cause nervous system malfunction
 present in gasoline to improve performance
– industrialized nations phased out leaded
gasoline
– industrial metal smelting is the problem now
 Criteria Air Pollutants: Lead
 Source: burning fuels that contain lead (phased
out), metal processing, waste incinerators
 Absorbed into blood; similar to calcium
 Accumulates in blood, bones, muscles, fat
– Damages organs – kidneys, liver, brain, reproductive
system, bones (osteoporosis)
– Brain and nervous system – seizures, mental
retardation, behavioral disorders, memory problems,
mood changes,
 Young children - lower IQ, learning disabilities
– Heart and blood – high blood pressure and increased Queensland Government Environmental Protection Agency
http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/air/air_

heart disease quality_monitoring/air_pollutants/airborne_lead /

– Chronic poisoning possible

 VOCs
 volatile organic compounds
 hydrocarbons
– methane forms part of natural gas
– propane used as portable fuel
– butane used in portable lighters
– octane component of gasoline
Pollution Decreased since 1970 in
the U.S
 emissions declined 53% since 1970
– cleaner burning vehicles
– catalytic converter
– clean coal technology
– baghouse filters
– electrostatic precipitators
– scrubbers
– phase-out of lead in gasoline www.aw-bc.com/Withgott
Air Pollution in China
 Do we have a way to determine local air quality?
 Air Quality Index (AQI)
 AQI is a number used by government
agencies to communicate to the public how
polluted the air is currently or how polluted
it is forecast to become.
• Different countries have their own air
quality indices and use different names
for their indices.
Air Quality Health Index (AQHI)
Air Pollution Index (API)
Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)
 China (API )
China's Ministry of Environmental
Protection (MEP) is responsible for
measuring the level of air pollution in China.
The API level is based on the level of 5
atmospheric pollutants
SO2
NO2
PM10
CO
O3
PM2.5 、 PM10 concentration are measured
as average per 24h.
 SO2, NO2, O3, CO are measured as average
per hour.
 Assigns numerical rating to air quality of
six criteria pollutants (TSP, SO2, CO, O3,
NO2, and TSP*SO2)
 Criteria Air Pollutants: Air
Quality Index (AQI)
 Begin by calculating individual subindex for each pollutant
 Subindex is defined as segmented linear function
– What is the index value if 8-hr CO is 9 mg/m^3?
 Overall API is the MAXIMUM of all the sub-index values

Index 24 hr TSP 24 hr SO2 TSPxSO2 8 hr CO 8 hr O3 1 hr NO2

Value g/m3 g/m3 g/m3)2 mg/m3 g/m3 g/m3
0 0 0 N/A 0 0 N/A
50 75 80 N/A 5 118 N/A
100 260 365 N/A 10 235 N/A
200 375 800 65,000 17 400 1130
300 625 1600 261,000 34 800 2260
400 875 2100 393,000 46 1000 3000
500 1000 2620 490,000 57.5 1200 3750
For instance, if 8-hr CO is 9 mg/m3, then we have
to interpolate to find the actual Index Value.
IV= [(100-50)/(10-5)]*(9-5)+50
 Criteria Air Pollutants: Air
Quality Index (AQI)
 Group Work: Calculate the AQI and give a verbal description
of air that contains 7 mg/m3 CO (8-hour average), 300 g/m3
TSP (24-hour average), and 300 g/m3 SO2 (24-hour
average)?
– Reminder: Good (0-50); Moderate (51-100); Unhealthful (100-199);
Very Unhealthful (200-299); Hazardous (>300)
Value 24 hr TSP 24 hr SO2 TSPxSO2 8 hr CO 8 hr O3 1 hr NO2
g/m3 g/m3 g/m3)2 mg/m3 g/m3 g/m3
0 0 0 N/A 0 0 N/A
50 75 80 N/A 5 118 N/A
100 260 365 N/A 10 235 N/A
200 375 800 65,000 17 400 1130
300 625 1600 261,000 34 800 2260
400 875 2100 393,000 46 1000 3000
500 1000 2620 490,000 57.5 1200 3750
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/air/flaqs/forecast.htm
USA (AQI)
 Hong Kong
 5 pollutants ambient respirable suspended
particulate (RSP), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), ozone (O3) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) over a 24-hour period
Canada (AQHI)